INTRODUCTION  TO 

AGRICULTURE 


ilA.UPHAM 


LIBRARY 


University  of  California. 

GIFT 

\lru^e->  ^H^ 


GIFT    OF 


Class 


AN   INTRODUCTION   TO 

AGRICULTURE 


AN  INTRODUCTION 


TO 


AGRICULTURE 


BY 


A.    A.    UPHAM 

TEACHER  OF  SCIENCE,    STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 
WHITEWATER,  WISCONSIN 


NEW    YORK 

D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 

1910 


s# 


Copyright,  1910,  by 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


PREFACE 


The  author's  thought  in  preparing  this  book  has 
been  to  provide  an  elementary  text  on  agriculture  suit- 
able for  use  by  children  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades, 
and  by  pupils  of  a  corresponding  advancement  in  un- 
graded schools.  It  is  hoped,  also,  that  the  book  will 
not  be  found  unsuited  to  the  needs  of  Reading  Circles 
and  of  individual  students. 

The  author,  of  course,  makes  no  claim  to  complete- 
ness, nor  is  the  book  offered  as  a  guide  to  farming.  The 
effort  has  been,  however,  to  touch  those  matters  which 
would  be  most  useful  to  pupils  in  our  rural  schools,  and 
especially  to  give  the  underlying  theory  for  many  farm 
processes  and  practices. 

It  is  believed  that  teachers  and  students  will  find 
the  summaries  and  questions  at  the  end  of  each  chapter 
especially  helpful  in  reviewing  and  making  definite  the 
information  which  the  chapters  contain.  One  of  the 
most  important  reasons  for  teaching  agriculture  in 
schools  is  to  prepare  pupils  to  read  and  understand 

V 

209711 


vi  PKEFAOE 

agricultural  literature.  Lists  of  such  literature  and 
directions  for  obtaining  it  will  be  found  at  the  end  of 
the  book. 

Acknowledgment  is  gratefully  made  for  the  use  of 
material  found  in  various  Farmers'  Bulletins  and  re- 
ports, especially  those  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  and  of  the  State  Experiment  Stations  of 
Wisconsin,  Vermont,  and  Minnesota.  The  author  is 
grateful  to  Superintendent  0.  J.  Kern,  of  Winnebago 
County,  Illinois,  for  the  use  of  the  illustrations  on 
page  155,  and  also  to  others  whose  names  appear  in 
connection    with   various   illustrations   for    the   use   of 

the  same. 

A.  A.  Upham. 
Whitewater,  Wis.,  1910. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTKB  packs 

I.    The  Nature  of  Plants 1-9 

The  Science  of  Agriculture,  1;  The  Parts  of  a 
Plant,  2;  How  a  Plant  Grows,  4;  How  the  Plant 
Gets  Its  Food,  5;  Conditions  of  Growth,  7;  Plant 
Food  Must  Be  Usable,  8;  Summary,  9;  Ques- 
tions, 9. 

II.    The  Sou 10-19 

The  Composition  of  Soil,  10;  Kinds  of  Soil,  11; 
Formation  of  Soil — Rock  Weathering,  13;  Glacial 
Action  in  Formation,  16;  Uses  of  the  Soil  to  the 
Plant,  17;  Good  Farm  Soil,  18;  Summary,  18; 
Questions  and  Problems,  19. 

III.  Water  in  the  Soil        .       .       .       .       .        20-29 

The  Importance  of  Water  to  Plants,  20;  The  Move- 
ment of  Water  in  the  Soil,  20;  Amount  of  Water 
Used  by  Different  Plants,  22;  Effect  of  Too  Little 
Water  in  the  Soil,  22;  Effect  of  Too  Much  Water, 
22;  How  the  Soil  May  be  Made  to  Hold  More 
Moisture,  25;  The  Benefits  of  Underdrainage,  26; 
Methods  of  Drainage,  27;  Summary,  28;  Ques- 
tions and  Problems,  29. 

IV.  Tilling  the  Soil 30-39 

Tillage,  30;  Objects  of  Tillage,  30;  Preparation  of 
the  Seed  He. I.  32;  Regulation  of  Moisture,  32; 
Other  Uses,  33;  A  Risk  in  Tilling,  33;  Importance 
of  Good  Till  i  gs, :;  1 ;  Ullage  Implements— The  Plow, 
34;  Harrows,  Plankers,  and  Rollers,  35;  Dry 
vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

Farming,  37;  Summary,  38;  Questions  and  Prob- 
lems, 38. 

V.     Enriching  the  Soil 40-53 

Elements  and  Compounds,  40;  The  Source  of  the 
Three  Kinds  of  Plant  Foods,  42;  How  These 
Foods  Get  Into  the  Plant,  43;  The  Use  to  the 
Plant  of  Each  Kind  of  Food,  45;  Barnyard 
Manure,  46;  Other  Ways  of  Enriching  the  Soil, 
48;  Commercial  Fertilizers,  48;  Amendments,  49; 
Nitrification,  50;  Summary,  51;  Questions  and 
Problems,  52. 

VI.  Leguminous  Plants  and  Rotation  of  Crops  54-62 
Clover  and  Its  Relatives,  54;  Fixation  of  Nitrogen, 
55;  Legumes  as  Nitrogen  Gatherers,  55;  Other 
Uses  of  Legumes,  56 ;  Rotation  of  Crops,  57 ;  Rota- 
tion Is  a  Weapon  Against  Pests,  57;  Rotation 
Destroys  Weeds,  58;  Rotation  Practically  Enlarges 
the  Farm,  58;  Rotation  Regulates  the  Food  Sup- 
ply in  the  Soil,  59;  The  Norfolk  System  of  Rota- 
tion, 60;  Summary,  61;  Questions,  62. 

VII.  The  Uses  the  Plant  Makes  of  Its  Food  63-70 
The  Factory  of  Nature,  63;  Oxygen,  Hydrogen, 
and  Carbon,  63;  The  Products  of  Plant  Growth,  64; 
How  the  Plant  Digests  Its  Food  Elements,  66; 
Changing  Starch  to  Sugar,  66;  Changing  Sugar  to 
Starch,  67;  The  Composition  of  Certain  Vegetable 
Products,  68;  The  Production  of  Heat,  68;  The 
Production  of  Seeds,  69;  Summary,  69;  Questions 
and  Problems,  70. 

VIII.     Plant  Enemies:  Weeds,  Insects,  and  Plant 

Diseases 71-89 

What  a  Weed  Is,  71 ;  Why  Weeds  Are  Enemies,  71 ; 
Classes  of  Weeds,  72;  Annuals,  and  How  to  Kill 
Them,  72;  Biennials,  and  How  to  Kill  Them,  75; 
Perennials,  and  How  to  Kill  Them,  75;  Descrip- 
tion of  an  Insect,  77;  Life  History  of  Insects,  78; 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

Classification  of  Insects,  79;  Some  Common  Cut- 
ting Insects,  80;  Some  Common  Sucking  Insects, 
83;  Insect  Control,  84;  Nature  of  Plant  Diseases, 
85;  Some  Common  Diseases  and  Their  Treatment, 
85;  Summary,  88;  Questions,  89. 

IX.    The  Farmer's  Friends  :  Birds,  Toads,  Insects  90-102 
Birds  and  Their  Food,  90;  Useful  Birds,  91;  At- 
tracting the  Birds,  96;  Toads  and  Frogs,  99;  Useful 
Insects,  99;  Summary,  101;  Questions  and  Prob- 
lems, 101. 

X.  Propagation  of  Plants  by  Seeds  .  .  103-118 
Seeds,  103;  Flowers,  103;  The  Parts  of  a  Flower, 
103;  Pollination,  106;  Cross  Pollination  and 
Hybrids,  107;  Propagation  of  Plants,  108;  Quality 
of  Seeds,  109;  Age  of  Seeds,  109;  Maturity  of 
Seeds,  110:  Selecting  Seeds,  110;  Testing  Seeds, 
115;  Conditions  Affecting  Germination,  116;  Sum- 
mary, 117;  Questions  and  Problems,  118. 

XI.     Propagation    by    Cuttings    and    Other 

Means 119-126 

Other  Methods  of  Propagation,  119;  Growth  from 
Buds,  119;  Cuttings,  120;  Layering,  121;  Grafting, 
121;  The  Necessity  for  Grafting,  124;  Budding, 
125;  Summary,  126;  Questions,  126. 

XII.    The  Farm  Garden 127-132 

The  Importance  of  the  Farm  Garden,  127 ;  Position 
and  Soil  for  the  Garden,  127;  The  Care  of  the 
Garden,  128;  Desirable  Plants  for  the  Garden,  128; 
Summary,  131. 

XIII.    Farm  Crops 133-149 

Hay  and  Grass  Crop,  133;  Alfalfa,  134;  Clovers, 
135;  Corn,  135;  Wheat  and  Other  Grains,  187 J 
Field  Peas,  141;  Potatoes.  Ill;  Hoot  Crops,  142; 
Cotton.  143;  Sugar  Cane,  146:  Rice,  L46;7obaeoo, 
1 16;  Summary,  149;  Questioni  and  Prohtoms,  149. 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  l'AGKS 

XIV.    The  Orchard 150-158 

Apples,   150;  Pears,   152;  Peaches,   153;    Cherries' 
and  Grapes,  154;  Marketing  Fruit,  154;  Transplant- 
ing and  Pruning,  154;  Summary,  158;  Questions 
and  Problems,  158. 

XV.     Cattle 159-169 

The  Usefulness  of  the  Cow,  159;  The  Dairy  Cow, 
159;  Beef  Breeds,  164;  Advantages  in  Raising 
Cattle,  166;  The  Importance  of  Good  Cattle,  167; 
How  to  Improve  the  Herd,  167;  Summary,  168; 
Questions  and  Problems,  168 

XVI.  Milk  and  Its  Products  ....  170-180 
The  Composition  of  Milk,  170;  The  Food  Value  of 
Milk,  172;  The  Souring  of  Milk,  172;  The  Milk 
Tester,  174;  The  Separator,  174?  Cream,  176; 
Skimmed  Milk,  177;  Butter,  177;  Cheese,  178; 
Summary,  179;  Questions  and  Problems,  180. 

XVII.    The  Horse 181-190 

Antecedents  and  Types,  181 ;  Desirable  Character- 
istics, 181;  Speed  Horses,  183;  Draft  Horses,  185; 
Coach  Horses,  187;  Ponies,  187;  Use  and  Care  of 
Horses,  188;  The  Intelligence  of  Horses,  189; 
Summary,  190;  Questions,  190. 

XVIII.    Sheep  and  Swine 191-201 

Advantages  of  Sheep  Raising,  191;  Breeds  of 
Sheep,  191;  Advantages  of  Raising  Swine,  194; 
Breeds  of  Swine,  195;  Where  and  How  to  Raise 
Swine,  198;  Summary,  199;  Problems,  200. 

XIX.     Poultry  and  Bees 202-213 

Benefits  of  Poultry  Raising,  202;  Breeds  of 
Chickens,  204;  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Turkeys,  207; 
Raising  and  Care  of  Poultry,  207;  Summary,  212; 
Questions  and  Problems,  212. 

XX.     Principles  of  Feeding  and  Care  of  Animals  214-225 
Importance  of  A.nimal  Food,  214;  Classes  of  Feeds, 
216;  Balanced  Rations  and  the  Nutritive  Ratio, 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

217;  Kinds  of  Feeding  Stuffs,  220;  Profit  and 
Loss  in  Feeding,  222;  Care  of  Animals,  223;  Sum- 
mary, 225;  Questions,  225. 

XXI.    Good  Roads. — Forestry. — Home  and  School 

Grounds 226-241 

The  Fanner's  Interest  in  Good  Roads,  226;  How 
to  Make  and  Keep  a  Road  Good,  226;  The  Purpose 
of  Forestry,  229;  Some  Advantages  of  Forests,  230; 
What  Other  Nations  are  Doing  in  Forestry,  231; 
What  Our  Government  is  Doing,  232;  How  a 
Forest  May  be  Perpetuated,  233;  Home  and  School 
Grounds,  234;  Trees  and  Shrubs,  234;  Vines,  236; 
Flower  Garden,  237;  Hardy  Perennials  for  the 
Farmer's  Flower  Garden,  239;  Hardy  Flowering 
Shrubs  Best  Adapted  to  the  Farmer's  Garden  and 
Lawn,  239;  Conclusion,  240;  Summary,  240. 

APPENDIX 

Insecticides  and  Fungicides 243-246 

Bordeaux  Mixture  for  Blights,  243;  How  to  Treat 
Seed  Oats  to  Prevent  Smut,  244;  How  to  Treat 
Scabby  Seed  Potatoes,  245;  Kerosene  Emulsion, 
245;  Paris  Green,  245. 

Tables         246-259 

Table  I. — Soil  Constituents  Contained  in  Average 
Crops  per  Acre,  246;  Table  II. — Fertility  Removed 
by  Different  Crops,  246;  Table  III.— Space  and 
Quantities  of  Seed  Require),  247;  Quantities  of 
Seed  Required  to  the  Acre,  247;  Table  IV.— 
Amount  of  Nutrients  for  a  Day's  Feeding,  248; 
Table  V. — Dry  Matter  and  Digestible  Food  In- 
gredients in  KM)  Pounds  of  Feeding  Stuffs,  250; 
Fuel  Value,  252;  Table  VI.— Ration-  Actually 
Fed  to  Hones  and  Digestible  Nutrients  and 
Energy  in  Rations,  253;  Table  VII. — Pounds  of 
Total  Dry  Matter  ami  Digestible  Ingredients 
(Protein  and  Carbohydrates,  Including  Fats  X 
2.25)  in  Varying  Weight-  of  Fodders  and  IVeds,  254. 

Ebra  259-261 


AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


CHAPTER  I 

THE   NATURE   OF  PLANTS 

i.  The  Science  of  Agriculture. — Agriculture  or  farm- 
ing consists  primarily  in  raising  plants  and  animals.  The 
farmer  aiming  to  have  a  profitable  business  must  under- 
stand many  things  about  the  plants  and  animals  he 
raises,  for  without  a  knowledge  of  their  nature,  their 
habits,  and  their  needs  he  may  labor  year  after  year 
making  only  a  halfway  success  of  his  work.  It  is  easy 
to  waste  the  good  things  that  Nature  has  provided  for 
the  farmer.  It  is  easy  also  to  increase  greatly  the  or- 
dinary production  from  the  land — if  one  only  knows  how. 

How  to  get  the  best  results  in  agriculture  is  a  ques- 
tion that  men  are  studying  all  the  time.  Agriculture  is 
a  science — one  of  the  most  useful  of  all  the  sciences. 
Wherever  agricultural  science  improves  farming  it  bene- 
fits mankind.  Human  beings  everywhere  are  depend- 
ent on  farming  for  food.  This  food  in  great  variety 
comes  from  plants  and  from  animals.  Animals  them- 
selves are  dependent  on  plant  growths  for  food.  So  we 
see  that  the  growing  of  plants  by  farmers  is  one  of  the 
fundamental  occupations  of  human  kind. 

The  farmer,  first  of  all,  should  be  interested  in  study- 
ing the  fundamental  facts  of  his  science.    He  must 

l 


2      AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


understand  how  plants  grow  and  what  kinds  of  soil  are 
best  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  various  plants.  He 
must  have  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  diseases  and  the 
enemies  of  plants  and  how  to  overcome  them.  He  will 
wish  to  know  also  many  facts  about  cattle,  poultry, 
sheep,  and  other  farm  animals.  Such  fundamental  facts 
we  are  to  study  in  this  book. 

2.  The  Parts  of  a  Plant. — In  speaking  of  plants  now 
we  are  thinking  of  all  kinds  of  things  growing  out  of  the 
earth  that  provide  food — trees,  grains,  grasses,  vines, 
roots,   and   all   the   others.     Most   plants   have   roots, 

stems,  leaves,  flowers,  and 
fruits  or  seeds.  Some  of  the 
lower  plants,  which  are  used 
for  food,  such  as  mushrooms, 
do  not  have  all  of  these  parts. 
Some  are  dependent  on  other 
plants  for  their  support  and 
for  their  nourishment.  These 
parts  or  organs  are  concerned 
with  the  two  functions  of 
plants — growth  and  repro- 
duction. The  growth  organs 
are  the  roots,  stem,  and 
leaves;  the  reproductive  or- 
gans are  the  flowers,  fruits, 
and  seeds. 

Roots. — The   roots  reach 
out   through  the  soil,  hold- 

^SWin^ow^MeTi    »"*   the    Plant    in    PlaCe   a"d 

stem;  d,  roots.  gathering  food  for  it.     They 


THE    NATURE    OF    PLANTS 


arise  from  the  stem,  and  branch  or  divide  into  smaller 
roots,  untilthey  become  fine,  delicate  rootlets.  Except 
at  their  tips,  the  tiny  rootlets  are  covered  with  still  finer 
root  hairs.  These  root  hairs  take  in  food  for  the  plant. 
They  may  increase  the  absorptive  or  feeding  surface  of 
the  root  seven  to  seventy-five  times. 

Stems  and  Leaves. — The  stem  is  the  supporting  organ, 
the  framework  on  which  the  leaves  and  flowers  are 
borne.  It  may  be  very  short  and  thick  as  the  " crown" 
of  turnips  and  beets;  it  may  be  very  slender  and  light  as 
in  the  grains  and  grasses;  or  it  may  be  large  and  strong 


Gooseberry.     Showing  a,  flower;  6,  fruit 


as  in  the  trunks  of  trees.  The  food  absorbed  by  the 
root  hairs  passes  through  the  larger  roots  and  the  stem 
to  all  parts  of  the  plant.  On  the  stem  and  generally  in 
the  axil  of  a  leaf,  buds  are  borne  which  produce  branches 
bearing  either  leaves  or  flowers.  The  leaves  help  gather 
food  by  absorbing  gases  from  the  air.  And  it  is  in  the 
leaves  that  the  food  elements  gathered  by  the  roots  and 
8  are  made  ready  for  the  use  of  the  plant. 


4      AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Place  the  stem  of  a  plant  (balsam)  in  water  colored  with 
red  ink  and  watch  the  passage  of  the  water  up  the  stem  and 
into  the  leaves. 

Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Seeds. — The  flowers  on  a  plant 
produce  the  fruit  and  seeds.  The  seed,  as  you  know, 
contains  the  young  plant.  The  parent  plant  stores  food 
in  the  seed,  and  this  food  the  young  plant  uses  in  send- 
ing out  its  first  shoots  and  getting 
ready  to  glean  its  own  living. 


Lima  Bean,  a,  cotyledons  opened  to  show  hypocotyl  and  plumule 
b  to  e,  successive  stages  in  germination  showing  development  oj 
hypocotyl,  roots,  cotyledons,  stem,  and  plumule. 


3.  How  a  Plant  Grows. — You  may  have  seen  how  a 
plant  begins  to  grow  from  the  seed.  It  sends  a  shoot 
upward  toward  the  light  and  another  shoot  downward 
as  a  root.  The  upward  shoot  becomes  the  stem.  It 
branches  out  and  has  leaves,  and  so  makes  the  full- 
grown  plant  which  we  see.  The  root,  as  it  grows,  also 
divides  into  many  branches  which  run  through  the 
ground. 


THE    NATURE    OF    PLANTS  5 

If  you  put  some  beans  or  other  large  seeds  in  water 
or  damp  sand,  you  can  see  how  they  sprout.  On  the 
outside  will  be  found  two  coatings.  Beneath  these  are 
two  leaves,  thick  and  yellow.  They  contain  the  nour- 
ishment on  which  the  young  plant  begins  its  life.  These 
leaves  are  called  cotyledons. 

Place  some  large  seeds,  such  as  beans  or  peas,  in  water  over 
night.  Then  take  out  some  of  them  and  study  their  structure. 
Place  the  others  in  damp  sawdust  or  sand.  Continue  for  sev- 
eral days  the  study  of  the  little  plants. 

Lay  the  first  leaves  apart  and  you  will  find  between 
them  two  tiny  leaves  supported  by  a  minute  stem. 
These  inner  leaves  are  called  the  plumule  and  the  stem 
is  called  the  hypocotyl.  The  hypocotyl  grows  and  lifts 
the  leaves  above  the  ground.  From  the  hypocotyl  also 
the  first  root  starts  in  its  downward  growth.  In  some 
plants  the  plumule  develops  into  the  first  real  leaves;  in 
others  the  cotyledons  become  the  first  leaves  above 
ground.  Corn  and  certain  other  seeds  have  only  one 
cotyledon. 

4.  How  the  Plant  Gets  Its  Food. — The  plant  starts  its 
life  by  feeding  on  the  food  stored  in  the  seed.  But  as 
soon  as  its  leaves  have  reached  the  sunlight  and  its  roots 
begin  to  spread  out  through  the  soil,  the  plant  must  find 
and  make  its  own  food.  Air,  water,  and  mineral  salts 
in  the  soil  are  the  plant's  food  materials. 

Sprout  grains  of  corn,  wheat,  barley,  etc.,  between  two 

pieces  of  damp  cloth  inclosed  between  two  plates.     Place  two 

or  three  matches  with  the  seeds  to  prevent  mold,  and  set  the 

plates  in  a  warm  place.     In  a  few  days  study  the  seedlings,  ex- 

2 


6   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


amining  the  parts.     Notice  the  hairs  on  the  roots.     Compare  the 
different  kinds  of  plants. 

The  plant  can  take  in  nothing  in  solid  form.  All  its 
food  from  the  soil  comes  to  it  dissolved  in  water,  which 
can  pass  readily  from  the  soil  through  the  root  hairs 
into  the  tiny  rootlets.  The  soil  water  contains  carbonic 
acid  derived  principally  from  decaying  organic  matter 
which  helps  it  to  dissolve  the  mineral  compounds  in  the 
soil.     The  water  passing  into  the  root  hairs  takes  with 

it  the  mineral  salts 
that  are  necessary  to 
the  plant's  health  and 
growth.  These  min- 
eral salts  are  really 
several  substances 
mixed  together,  but 
all  are  called  salts. 
While  the  salts  are 
dissolved  in  water, 
we  cannot  see  them. 
Their  tiny  invisible 
particles  are  mixed  with  the  particles  of  water  in  what 
is  known  as  a  solution.  If  we  boil  some  water  until  it 
has  all  evaporated,  we  shall  generally  find  in  the  bottom 
of  the  kettle  a  white  substance  that  looks  like  common 
salt.  This  is  the  mineral  salt  which  was  in  the  water 
but  which  did  not  evaporate  with  it.  When  we  burn 
plants  the  mineral  parts  are  left  in  the  form  of  ashes. 

The  plant  feeds  from  the  air  as  well  as  from  the 
water  in  the  soil.  Its  leaves  absorb  gases  from  the  air, 
and  these  gases,  especially  the  carbon  dioxide,  are  used 


Cross  Section  of  a  Root  Showing  the 
Root  Hairs,  a,  bark  cells;  b,  duct  for 
passage  of  water  and  air. 


THE    NATURE    OF    PLANTS 


in  preparing  the  food  for  the  plant.     In  some  way  that 

we  do  not  wholly  understand,  a  plant  has  the  power  to 

combine  the  water,  the  mineral 

substances   from   the  soil,   and 

the  gases  from  the  air  so  as  to 

make  food  for  itself.    This  can 

take  place  only  in  sunlight.     In 

this  process  the  leaves  return  to 

the  air  through  the  stomata  a 

gas  which  we  call  oxygen  and 

more  or  less  water. 

5.  Conditions  of  Growth. — In 
order  to  grow  well,  the  plant 
must  have  the  proper  conditions 
of  heat,  water,  air,  light,  and 
food.  Until  the  weather  is  warm 
most  plants  do  not  even  sprout. 
Light  is  very  essential  to  the  life 
of  plants;  in  the  dark  they  stop 
growing  or  grow  only  a  little 
and  weakly.  A  certain  amount 
of  water  must   be   in   the  soil 

within  reach  of  the  plant,  or  it  will  wither  and  die. 
There  must  be  a  free  circulation  of  air,  and  the  proper 
amount  and  kinds  of  plant  food  must  be  in  the  soil. 

i.  In  two  flowerpots  plant  some  grains  of  wheat  or  oats, 

after  soaking  in  warm  water  for  several  hours.     When  the  seeds 

germinated,  place  one  flowerpot  where  a  strong  light  will 

reach  it  from  all  sides  and  the  other  in  a  window  where  the 

light  comes  from  only  one  side.     Watch  the  results. 

2.  After  a  lawn  haq  fx'en  mowed,  cover  a  small  section  of  it 
with  a  box,  bottom  upward.    The  box  may  be  a  foot  or  more 


Under  Side  of  Leaf.  Show- 
ing A,  months  or  sto- 
mata for  passage  of  air; 
B,  a  cross  section  show- 
ing a,  air  space;  8,  stoma; 
g,  guard  cell  which  opens 
and  closes  the  stoma. 


8    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

square.     After  a  few  days  the  grass  beneath  will  have  lost  its 
green  color  and  ceased  to  grow.     Why? 

3.  In  two  wide-mouthed  bottles  place  some  damp  sawdust. 
After  soaking  in  water  a  handful  of  grains  of  wheat  or  oats 
place  half  in  each  bottle.  Cork  one  bottle  very  tightly,  covering 
it  with  vaseline,  and  leave  the  other  open.     Watch  the  results. 


Tobacco  Plants,     a,  grown  in  the  light;  b,  grown  for  two  weeks  in 
darkness.     After  Errera  and  Laurent. 

6.  Plant  Food  Must  Be  Usable. — The  plant  food  in 
the  soil  must  be  in  such  a  condition  that  the  plant  can 
use  it.  Many  stones  in  the  field  may  be  full  of  plant 
food,  but  the  plant  cannot  use  it  in  this  form.  If  a 
stone  is  broken  almost  to  a  powder,  even  then  the  ele- 
ments the  plant  needs  may  be  combined  with  something 
else  so  that  the  plant  cannot  get  its  food.     This  food 


THE    NATURE    OP    PLANTS  9 

must  be  changed  and  dissolved  in  water  before  the  plant 
can  use  it.  It  is  as  if  a  hungry  boy  stood  outside  a 
locked  pantry  door.  The  food  is  there,  but  it  can  do 
him  no  good  until  the  door  is  unlocked.  So  we  say  the 
plant  food  is  locked  up. 

One  thing  that  helps  unlock  this  food  is  air  in  the 
soil.  Among  the  loose  particles  of  soil  there  is  air  as 
well  as  water,  and  the  farmer  must  take  care  that  the  air 
is  not  shut  out.  Much  of  the  farmer's  work  consists  in 
releasing  this  food  so  that  the  plant  can  get  it.  How  it 
is  done  we  shall  learn  later. 

SUMMARY 

The  plant  consists  of  root,  stem,  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruits, 
or  seeds. 

The  food  of  the  plant  consists  of  air,  water,  and  mineral 
salts. — Food  material  in  the  soil  is  dissolved  in  water  and  ab- 
sorbed by  the  root  hairs  of  the  plant. — Gases  from  the  air  are 
absorbed  by  the  leaves  of  the  plant. 

The  conditions  of  plant  growth  are  proper  heat,  moisture, 
air,  light,  and  food. 

Much  of  the  farmer's  work  consists  in  making  plant  food 
usable. 

QUESTIONS 

x.  Why  is  agriculture  one  of  the  most  useful  of  all  the 
sciences? 

2.  Name  1 1 1« *  parti  of  a  )>lant.    Tell  the  uses  of  each. 

3.  Why  arc  root  hairs  so  important '.' 

4.  What  are  the  right  conditions  for  germination  and 
growth? 

5.  Name  and  give  the  use  of  each  part  of  a  seed. 

6.  In  what  form  is  plant  f<>o<l  usually  Pound  in  the  soil? 

7.  Why  cannot  the  plant  use  -tones  for  food? 


CHAPTER  II 


THE   SOIL 


7.  The  Composition  of  Soil. — By  soil  we  mean  that 
part  of  the  earth's  crust  in  which  plants  grow.  It  is  the 
loose  decomposed  layer  of  mineral  matter  resulting  from 

rock  decay  which  fur- 
1*  nishes  food  and  foot- 


fllHHKHIIJIIj  hold  for  plant  and  an. 

imal  life.  Soil  may  be 
from  a  few  inches  to 
^  several  feet  in  depth. 
The  earthy  material 
beneath  the  soil  is 
called  the  subsoil.  It 
is  generally  harder  and 
colder  than  the  sur- 
face layer  of  soil  and 
it  is  generally  not  suit- 
able for  plant  growth. 
Soil  is  usually  a  mixture  of  decayed  rocks,  plants,  and 
animal  matter.  We  say  that  a  rock  is  "  decayed"  when 
it  crumbles  up.  You  may  have  seen  in  a  gravel  bed 
stones  whose  outer  surface  can  be  crumbled  with  the 
hand.     The  crumbling  of  rocks  helps  to  make  soil.     The 

10 


Soil  Formed  from  Rock  Underneath. 
a,  soil  with  grass  growing  in  it;  b, 
subsoil,  coarser  and  more  rocky;  c, 
coarse,  loose  rock;  d,  rock  in  lay- 
ers, cracked.  d  changes  to  c,  c 
changes  to  b,  and  b  to  a. 


THE    SOIL  11 

pieces  that  break  off  are  sometimes  small  and  sometimes 
large.  In  many  soils  there  is  a  gradual  grading  from  the 
fine  soil  on  top,  down  through  coarser  and  coarser  parts, 
until  rock  is  reached. 

Plants  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  wither  and  die, 
and  gradually  become  a  part  of  the  soil.  In  some  places 
in  the  woods  the  fallen  leaves  have  lain  undisturbed  for 
centuries.  They  have  decayed  and  made  a  dark- 
colored  substance  in  the  soil.  The  roots  of  plants  that 
have  died,  rot  or  decay  and  add  other  vegetable  sub- 
stances to  the  soil.  These  decayed  parts  of  plants  give 
to  the  soil  some  material  that  is  very  valuable  for  the 
growth  of  plants  and  improve  it  in  other  ways  by  making 
it  light  so  that  light  and  water  will  circulate  through  it 
readily,  causing  it  to  warm  up  earlier  in  the  spring. 
Animal  matter  also  enters  into  the  soil  and  helps  to  make 
fertile  soil.  The  decaying  plant  and  animal  matter  in 
the  soil  is  called  hwnus. 

8.  Kinds  of  Soil. — Most  soils  are  made  up  chiefly  of 
four  different  grades  of  materials — sand,  silt,  clay,  and 
humus.  Sand  is  a  coarse-grained  material,  silt  is  finer, 
and  clay  finer  still.  Humus  has  been  described  above. 
If  the  soil  consists  of  these  four  materials  in  fairly  equal 
proportions,  it  is  called  loam.  If  there  is  more  of  one 
material,  the  soil  is  given  a  corresponding  name,  as 
sandy  loam,  clay  loam,  etc.  If  there  is  much  sand,  the 
soil  may  be  called  light  sandy,  or  if  there  is  much  clay, 
the  soil  may  be  called  heavy  clay.  The  terms  heavy  and 
light  do  not  refer  to  the  actual  weight  of  the  soil,  but  to 
the  difficulty  in  working  it  because  of  its  stickiness  or 
lack  of  it.    The  physical  nature  of  any  soil  is  largely  de- 


12    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

termined  by  the  kind  of  rock  from  which  it  is  derived. 
Some  of  the  more  common  of  these  rocks  are  described 
below. 

Examine  the  soil  in  the  garden  and  field  and  determine 
whether  it  is  sandy,  clayey,  or  loamy.  Examine  it  where  a  bank 
has  been  cut  through  and  notice  the  variations  as  we  go  down 
from  the  surface. 

Granite,  the  rock  commonly  used  for  monuments  and 
buildings,  consists  mainly  of  three  minerals  mixed  to- 
gether— quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica.  When  a  granite 
rock  decays,  the  quartz,  being  hard,  remains  as  sand. 
The  feldspar  and  the  mica  are  partly  dissolved  and 
break  up  into  fine  particles,  which  make  clay. 

Sandstone  is  made  of  grains  of  sand  cemented  to- 
gether. The  sand  may  be  coarse  or  fine,  white  or 
colored. 

Limestone  is  a  softer  stone  of  many  grades  and  all 
colors  from  black  to  white.  It  is  made  of  the  dust  of 
ground-up  shells,  of  clams,  oysters,  and  other  sea  crea- 
tures. The  shells,  moved  back  and  forth  over  stones  or 
other  shells  by  the  waves,  are  ground  to  a  fine  dust. 
This  dust  is  worked  together  into  a  hard  mass  and  forms 
rock.  Clay  and  sand  washed  down  by  the  rivers  mingle 
with  the  shell  dust,  and  thus  the  limestone  sometimes 
contains  clay  and  sand  also.  When  limestone  decays, 
much  of  it  is  dissolved  and  carried  away,  leaving  the 
clay  to  settle  and  form  a  clay  soil.  Sometimes  lime- 
stone may  contain  so  much  sand  that  its  decay  makes 
a  sandy  soil. 

If  possible,  obtain  specimens  of  granite,  sandstone,  and 
limestone.     With  a  hammer  break  up  a  piece  of  each  into  frag- 


THE    SOIL  13 

ments  as  small  as  peas.  Take  three  bottles  half  full  of  water 
and  put  into  them  pieces  of  the  broken  stones,  free  from  dust 
or  dirt.  Put  only  one  kind  of  stone  in  each  bottle,  and  have 
the  pieces  about  an  inch  deep  on  the  bottom.  Cork  the  bottles 
carefully  and  shake  them  several  times  a  day  for  a  week.  Ob- 
serve in  which  bottle  there  is  the  greatest  accumulation  of  soil. 

9.  Formation  of  Soil — Rock  Weathering. — The  decay 
of  rocks  and  the  making  of  soil  take  place  chiefly  by  e 
process  called  weathering.  Let  us  see  how  weathering 
acts  on  the  rocks. 

Granite,  as  we  have  learned,  consists  of  three  min- 
erals cemented  together.  If  one  of  the  minerals  is  dis- 
solved, the  rock  will  fall  to  pieces.  You  may  have  seen 
plaster  break  and  fall  from  the  ceiling  of  a  room  when 
water  has  leaked  through  from  above.  The  plaster  is 
made  of  lime  and  sand,  and  when  the  water  dissolves 
the  lime,  the  plaster  can  no  longer  hold  together.  In  a 
similar  way,  water  working  on  a  granite  rock  may  dis- 
solve a  little  of  the  feldspar  or  mica,  and  then  the  granite 
crumbles. 

Limestone  also  crumbles  when  water  dissolves  some 
of  the  cement  that  holds  it  together.  If  the  water 
working  on  limestone  contains  a  little  acid,  the  stone 
decays  faster.  Water  in  the  ground  is  nearly  always 
slightly  acid. 

Water  sometimes  works  its  way  into  a  rock  and 
freezes  there.  Now  we  know  that  water  in  freezing  ex- 
pands. If  a  bottle  full  of  water  freezes,  the  bottle  is 
likely  to  be  broken  because  of  the  expansion  of  the  water. 
In  like  manner,  water  freezing  in  a  rock  tends  to  split 
off  a  layer  of  rock. 


14    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Sunlight  on  a  rock  tends  to  flake  off  the  outside  sur- 
face. The  heat  seems  to  make  the  rock  expand  and 
crack,  just  as  the  top  of  a  stove  may  crack  from  the  ex- 


Weathered  Limestone. 
Wasting  is  by  solution.     Water  finds  readiest  access  along  joints. 


pansion  caused  by  heat.  When  the  weather  turns  colder 
at  night  or  in  the  winter,  the  rock  contracts  and  this  helps 
to  make  it  flake  off.  The  various  constituents  of  which 
a  rock  is  composed  expand  differently  under  the  effect 
of  heat,  and  the  many  different  strains  which  result 
break  the  rock  apart.  Thus  the  changes  in  temperature 
are  constantly  working  toward  the  loosening  of  par- 


THE    SOIL 


15 


tides  of  rock.  In  regions  where  the  soil  is  not  protected 
by  vegetation,  the  wind  is  an  important  factor  in  break- 
ing down  rocks.  Particles  of  sand  caught  up  and 
driven  against  rock  surfaces  exert  a  surprising  grinding 
power.     Cliffs  and  bowlders  are  undermined  in  this  way. 


Rocks  Wedged  Apart  by  Growim;  Tkkk. 

\\  .  item   M:tss;irliu-< 


Sand  driven  along  by  a  current  of  water  acts  in  the  same 
way. 

Plants  also  help  to  decay  rocks.     There  is  a  class  of 


16    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

plants,  called  mosses  and  lichens,  that  grow  on  rocks  and 
that  dissolve  the  rock  material  by  acids  which  they 
contain.  Wherever  plant  roots  come  in  contact  with 
rock,  they  act  on  the  rock  particles  and  help  to  crumble 
the  rock.  If  they  get  into  the  rock  crevices  and  grow 
they  may  fill  the  crevices  and  force  the  rock  apart. 
The  acid  developed  in  the  formation  of  humus  in  the 
soil  is  another  agent  in  the  breaking  down  of  rock. 

We  see,  therefore,  that  the  chief  agents  that  break 
down  rocks  are  water,  acid,  heat,  and  cold,  ice  and  frost, 
winds,  certain  plants  that  grow  on  rocks,  plant  roots,  and 
humus.     We  call  these  the  agents  of  weathering. 

Search  a  gravel  bank  for  specimens  of  weathered  stones. 

If  a  running  brook  is  near,  notice  the  coarse  stones  in  the 
middle  of  the  brook  and  the  finer  ones  nearer  the  edge.  At  the 
very  edge,  or  where  the  water  runs  slowly,  there  may  be  only 
mud.  After  a  rain  notice  the  sorting  power  of  water  as  shown 
in  the  road  or  street. 

io.  Glacial  Action  in  Soil  Formation. — Some  of  the 
richest  soils  in  America  were  formed  by  the  action  of 
glaciers  many  centuries  ago.  All  over  the  northern  part 
of  our  country  there  once  passed  a  glacier  several  hun- 
dred feet  thick.  This  glacier  tore  up  rocks  and  ground 
them  to  bits,  and  carried  and  distributed  the  pieces  over 
a  wide  area.  Thus  a  great  variety  of  rock  materials  was 
mixed  together  to  form  the  soil. 

Such  soils  are  likely  to  be  more  fertile  than  those 
formed  from  one  kind  of  rock  or  from  the  rocks  in  one 
place.  They  do  not  wear  out  so  quickly,  that  is,  their 
material  needed  for  plant  growth  is  not  so  soon  ex- 
hausted. 


THE    SOIL 


17 


ii.  Uses  of  the  Soil  to  the  Plant. — We  are  interested 

in  this  study  of  the  composition  of  soils  because  it  is 
largely  from  the  soil  that  plants  get  their  sustenance. 
By  understanding  how  the  soil  is  made,  we  learn  how  to 
get  it  into  the  right  condition  for  the  growth  of  plants. 


A  Mountain  Spvk  Smoothed  \\i>  Houhmed  by  a  Glacier. 
Glacier  Bay,  Alaska. 


The  soil  provides  the  support  in  which  plants  are 
anchored:  trees  need  a  great  mass  of  soil  to  hold  (hem  in 
place.  The  soil  furnishes  the  water  and  much  of  the 
nourishment  that  plants  need.  The  soil  also  helps  to 
give  the  plant  the  right  amount  of  heat.  It  acts  as  an 
absorber  and  storehouse  of  heat.     If  the  plant's  roots 


18    AN  INTKODUOTION  TO  AGKI0ULTU1IE 

were  exposed  to  the  sun  and  the  wind,  they  would  often 
suffer  from  too  much  heat,  and  as  often  be  too  cold. 
The  soil,  like  a  blanket,  both  keeps  heat  in  and  keeps 
it  out. 

12.  Good  Farm  Soil. — In  order  that  the  soil  may  do 
its  important  work  properly,  it  must  be  in  the  proper 
condition.  This  means  that  it  should  not  be  lumpy  or 
too  hard  or  too  loose.  It  must  be  made  up  of  the  right 
proportion  of  sand,  clay,  and  humus.  It  should  not  be 
wet  enough  to  cake  or  too  dry  to  supply  the  plants  with 
the  needed  moisture.  It  must  be  rich;  that  is,  it  must 
have  plenty  of  plant  food  in  the  condition  in  which 
plants  can  use  it.  Soil  that  is  neither  too  hard  nor  too 
loose  is  said  to  be  mellow.  A  fertile  soil  has  all  of  these 
conditions  just  right  for  the  production  of  good  crops! 


SUMMARY 

All  soil  is  made  from  the  decay  of  rocks,  plants,  and  animals. 
— The  principal  soil-forming  rocks  are  granite,  sandstone,  and 
limestone. — The  principal  kinds  of  soil  are  sandy  soil,  clayey- 
soil,  light  sandy  and  heavy  clay  soils. — Mixtures  of  sand,  silt, 
clay,  and  humus  are  called  loams. 

The  chief  process  of  soil  making  is  called  weathering. — The 
principal  agents  of  weathering  are  water,  acid,  wind,  heat  and 
cold,  frost  and  ice,  and  growing  plants. — Another  important 
agent  in  the  formation  of  soil  is  the  action  of  glaciers  in  grinding 
down  rocks. 

The  soil  is  necessary  to  support  the  plant  and  to  furnish 
nourishment  and  water  supply.  It  affords  a  place  where  plant 
food  may  change  its  form,  and  where  the  heat  of  the  sun  may 
be  absorbed  and  stored. — In  order  to  do  this  work  properly  the 
soil  must  be  in  the  right  condition. 


THE    SOIL  19 


QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  Are  there  gravel  banks  with  many  kinds  of  stones  near 
where  you  live?     If  so,  they  are  probably  glacial  drift. 

2.  How  can  you  tell  granite  from  sandstone?  Granite  from 
limestone?    Sandstone  from  limestone? 

3.  Which  is  darker  colored,  humus  or  sand? 

4.  Why  is  the  decay  of  rocks  called  weathering? 

5.  Geologists  tell  us  that  when  limestone  weathers,  ninety- 
six  per  cent  maybe  dissolved  and  carried  away.  How  many 
cubic  feet  of  limestone  would  make  twelve  cubic  feet  of  soil? 

6.  How  many  square  feet  are  there  in  an  acre?  If  a  farmer 
plows  eighl  indies  deep,  how  many  cubic  feet  does  he  move  in 
plowing  an  acre? 

7.  What  is  the  chief  operation  that  you  have  seen  farmers 
perform  to  get  soil  into  right  condition  for  plant  growth?  How 
do  you  think  this  helps? 

8.  Why  do  farmers  call  a  sandy  soil  light? 

9.  Would  a  rock  crumble  more  where  the  climate  is  even  or 
where  it  is  changeable? 

10.  Can  you  see  any  reasons  why  the  surface  soil  is  better 
than  the  subsoil?     Give  them. 


CHAPTER  III 

WATER  IN  THE  SOIL 

13.  The  Importance  of  Water  to  Plants. — Without 
plenty  of  water  in  the  soil,  plants  cannot  thrive.  You 
already  know  why  this  is  so.  Water  itself  is  a  plant 
food,  and  in  the  water  is  dissolved  all  the  other  food 
that  a  plant  takes  from  the  soil.  The  water  must  be  in 
contact  with  the  grains  of  soil  so  as  to  get  from  them 
the  mineral  salts  needed  to  feed  the  plant. 

14.  The  Movement  of  Water  in  the  Soil. — Part  of  the 
water  that  falls  during  a  rain  sinks  into  the  soil.  Some 
of  it  stays  near  the  surface  and  some  goes  deep  into  the 
subsoil.  You  know  how  the  water  sometimes  runs 
through  the  soil  in  a  flowerpot  and  comes  out  of  the 
hole  in  the  bottom.  If  the  soil  is  dry,  and  you  give  the 
plant  only  a  little  water,  none  of  the  water  runs  out, 
but  all  of  it  is  held  among  the  soil  grains,  which  now  look 
moist  instead  of  dry.  That  which  sticks  to  the  particles 
of  soil  is  called  film  water.  That  which  runs  through  the 
soil  is  called  free  water. 

Evaporation. — If  the  flowerpot  stands  in  the  sun 
after  it  has  been  watered  and  the  free  water  has  run  off, 
the  soil  on  top  will  dry  out.  The  water  in  it  has  passed 
off  into  the  air.  It  has  turned  to  vapor,  or,  as  we  say, 
has  evaporated. 

20 


WATER    IN    THE    SOIL 


21 


Porosity. — As  the  soil  on  top  dries,  the  water  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  flowerpot  gradually  moves  upward. 
The  film  water  fills  the  tiny  spaces  between  the  grains 
of  soil.  When  these  spaces  in  the  upper  layer  of  soil 
are  emptied  by  the  passing  of  the  water  into  the  air, 
more  water  creeps  up  from  below  to  fill  them.  You 
know  how  a  blotter 
takes  up  ink  and  how 
a  sponge  absorbs  wa- 
ter. Blotter,  sponge, 
and  soil  are  ]wrous 
objects.  Between  the 
particles  of  which  they 
are  made  are  tiny 
spaces  or  pores.  Into 
these  pores  the  liquid 
moves. 

Capillarity. — The  water,  we  have  said,  rises  through 
the  soil.  In  a  lamp  wick  the  oil  moves  upward  from  the 
base  of  the  lamp  to  the  surface  where  the  flame  is. 
Capillarity,1  or  capillary  attraction,  is  the  name  given 
to  the  force  which  causes  any  liquid  to  rise  through  a 
porous  substance. 

Take  two  glasses ;  fill  one  with  water,  and  place  them  side  by 
side.  Place  one  end  of  a  lamp  wick  in  the  glass  containing  the 
water,  and  let  the  other  end  hang  over  into  the  empty  glass. 
Watch  the  results. 


Experiment  Showing  Capillarity. 


1  Capillary  means  hairlike.     The  capillary  action  of  water  is  best 
shown  in  "  hairlike  "  tubes,  that  is,  small  glass  tubes  open  at  both 
ends.     If  such  tubes  are   placed   upright  in  a  pan  of  water,  the 
water  will  rise  in  them. 
3 


22    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

15.  Amount  of  Water  Used  by  Different  Plants. — 
The  amount  of  water  which  plants  contain,  even  when 
apparently  dry,  varies  from  six  to  eighty-five  per  cent 
of  their  total  weight.  The  quantity  of  water  in  some 
plants,  or  parts  of  plants,  is  shown  by  the  following  table : 

Grains 10  to  15  per  cent 

Dry  beans 12.4      " 

Green-apple  twigs 50  " 

Potatoes 80  " 

Green  grass 85  " 

But  the  plant  actually  needs  much  more  water  than 
is  shown  by  such  a  table.  To  keep  healthy,  a  plant 
must  constantly  have  a  great  quantity  of  water  passing 
through  its  stems  or  branches  to  the  leaves.  The  water 
evaporates  from  the  leaves  into  the  air.  Experiments 
have  shown  that,  for  each  pound  of  dry  grain  to  be 
harvested,  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  pounds  of 
water  should  pass  through  the  plants  producing  the 
grain. 

16.  Effect  of  Too  Little  Water  in  the  Soil.— A  plant 
will  quickly  starve  if  it  has  not  enough  water.  Water 
itself  is  the  most  important  plant  food,  and  it  is  the 
medium  for  the  transmission  of  plant  food,  for  the  plant 
gets  its  mineral  food  in  the  water  which  its  roots  absorb. 

Herbs  and  other  plants  that  have  little  woody  tissue 
in  their  stems  wilt  and  droop  if  they  have  not  sufficient 
water.  The  water  is  needed  to  fill  out.  the  stems  and 
keep  the  plants  stiff  and  upright,  as  well  as  to  bring 
food  from  the  soil. 

17.  Effect  of  Too  Much  Water. — Plants  may  suffer 
from  too  much  water  in  the  soil  as  well  as  from  too  little. 


WATER    IN    THE    SOIL  23 

Air  is  needed  in  the  soil  in  order  that  the  plant  may  get 
its  proper  food  (Sec.  5).  If  the  soil  is  very  wet,  so  that 
water  fills  all  the  spaces  among  the  grains  of  soil,  there 
will  be  no  room  for  the  air.  You  may  understand  better 
how  the  soil  holds  both  air  and  water  if  you  think  of  a 
wet  sponge.  The  substance  of  the  sponge  holds  water, 
and  all  through  the  sponge  are  tiny  open  spaces,  or  pores, 
filled  with  air. 

Too  much  water  may  injure  the  plant  in  another  way. 
The  roots  of  most  plants  will  not  go  down  into  water. 
If  they  find  the  ground  too  wet,  they  will  spread  out 
near  the  surface  instead  of  going  deeper.  Later,  when 
the  weather  becomes  hot,  the  roots,  being  near  the  sur- 
face, will  dry  up.  Too  much  water  at  first  results  in  too 
little  available  water  later. 

Still  another  thing  we  must  remember  about  water- 
soaked  soil.  Ground  that  is  very  wet  is  cold.  More 
heat  is  required  to  warm  water  than  to  warm  soil.  Then, 
too,  from  wet  ground  water  is  all  the  time  evaporating. 
As  it  passes  off  into  the  air,  the  water  takes  with  it  some 
of  the  warmth  in  the  ground.  This  warmth  is  needed 
for  the  growth  of  plants,  and  especially  of  seeds.  Rapid 
evaporation  from  wet  soil  wastes  it.  When  the  sun  is 
warming  the  land  in  spring,  wet  soil  is  not  made  ready 
for  seed  planting  bo  soon  as  soil  with  only  a  moderate 
amount  of  moisture.  A  wet  soil  is  likely  to  be  over- 
acid  or  sour,  and  not  well  suited  for  crop  growth. 

Thus  we  see  that  for  many  reasons  it  is  important 
that  the  soil  for  most  plants  should  not  be  water-soaked. 
The  soil  is  a  storehouse  for  water.  One  of  the  chief 
problems  of  the  farmer  is  how  to  regulate  the  sup- 


24    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


ply  and  give  his  crops  neither  too  little  nor  too  much 
water. 

For  this  and  some  other  experiments  a  small  spring  balance 
weighing  by  ounces  up  to  four  pounds  is  desirable.  Provide  five 
pint  bottles  with  the  bottoms  cut  off  as  follows: 

To  cut  off  the  bottoms  of  the  bottles,  saturate  a  string  with 
kerosene  or  alcohol;  let  it  drain  and  then  wind  it  two  or  three 
times  around  the  bottle  near  the  bottom.  Tie  the  string  tightly 
and  cut  off  the  ends.  Light  the  kerosene  and  let  it  burn,  hold- 
ing the  bottle  bottom  upward.  As  soon  as  the  kerosene  is 
nearly  or  quite  done  burning,  dip  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  into 
water,  if  the  bottom  has  not  already  cracked  off.  Cork  the  bot- 
tles with  corks  having  notches  cut  in  the  sides  so  as  to  allow 
water  to  enter  when  the  necks  are  immersed  in  water.  Tie  a 
string  around  the  neck  of  each  inverted  bottle  and  bring  the 

string  up  near  the  bottom  of  the 
bottle  so  as  to  make  a  noose 
around  the  bottle.  Make  a  loop 
in  the  end  of  the  string  into  which 
the  hook  of  the  balance  may  be 
placed.  Weigh  each  bottle,  and 
record  the  weight.  Place  in  each 
bottle  a  pound  (or  other  known 
weight)  of  some  kind  of  soil,  as, 
for  example,  gravel  in  one,  sand 
in  another,  poor  soil  in  the  third, 
loam  in  the  fourth,  and  leaf  mold 
in  the  fifth.  Stand  the  bottles 
bottom  up  in  old  tin  cans,  each 
can  containing  the  same  amount 
of  water.  Cover  the  open  ends  of 
the  bottles  with  a  piece  of  rubber 
sheeting  to  prevent  evaporation. 
After  two  or  three  days  weigh  each  bottle  to  see  which  soil  has 
gained  the  largest  amount  of  water. 

Empty  the  remaining  water  from  the  cans,  replace  the  bot- 


Experiment  Showing  Absorp 
tion  of  Water  by  Soils. 


WATER    IN    THE    SOIL 


25 


ties,  and  uncover  the  ends  to  allow  the  water  to  evaporate  from 
the  soil.     Note  which  kind  of  soil  loses  water  rapidly. 


1 8.  How  the  Soil  May  Be  Made  to  Hold  More  Moisture. 
— Let  us  see  what  the  farmer  can  do  to  make  the  soil 
hold  more  moisture.  You  will  remember  that  water  in 
the  soil  finds  its  place  in  the  minute  spaces  between  the 
particles  of  soil  (Sec.  6) ;  and  you  have  learned  that  by 
capillary  attraction  the  water  creeps  up  along  the  sur- 
faces of  these  particles  of  soil  (Sec.  14).  By  breaking 
up  the  soil  into  finer  pieces  the  farmer  may  increase  the 
total  surface  and  also  the  total  space  for  the  water  to  fill. 

This  will  be  clear  if  you  think  of  cutting  a  cube  of 
cheese  into  pieces.     If  the  cube  is  one  inch  square,  its 
surface  contains  six  square  inches.     By  three  cuts  with 
a  knife  the  inch  cube  can 
be  made   into  eight  half- 
inch  cubes.     The   surface 
of   these   eight    cubes  to- 
gether is  twice  that  of  the 
inch  cube.     The  inch  cube 
offered  no  space  into  which 
a  liquid  could  be  poured, 

but  the  eight  smaller  cubes  thrown  together  offer  many 
little  cracks  and  crevices.  This  illustrates  why  the 
farmer  should  make  his  soil  fine  by  tilling,  the  meth- 
ods of  which  we  shall  study  in  the  next  chapter. 

The  soil  is  made  more  porous  and  able  to  hold  more 
moisture,  without  becoming  cold  or  soggy,  by  adding 
humn  S<  7)  to  it.  Barnyard  manure  or  plowed- 
under  crops,  of  which  we  shall  learn  in  Sections  35  and 


Experiment  Showing  Increase  of 
Surface  by  Subdivision. 


26    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

36,  increase  the  humus  in  the  soil.  Humus  can  hold 
more  than  seven  times  as  much  water  as  the  same 
amount  of  sand  (reckoned  by  weight)  can  hold.  A  little 
humus  mixed  with  soil  increases  the  ability  of  the  soil 
to  hold  water  to  a  degree  equal  to  nearly  twice  the 
weight  of  the  humus. 

Get  three  examples  of  garden  soil,  one  from  a  depth  of  six 
inches,  one  from  a  depth  of  twelve  inches,  and  one  from  a 
depth  of  eighteen  inches.  Weigh  as  accurately  as  possible 
eight  ounces  of  each  and  thoroughly  dry  each  sample  in  a  warm 
place.  Weigh  each  dried  sample.  Divide  the  loss  in  weight  by 
the  original  weight,  to  find  the  percentage  of  water  that  each 
contained. 

19.  The  Benefits  of  Underdrainage. — The  best  way 
to  regulate  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil  is  by 
drainage.  Farmers  have  various  methods  of  draining 
land,  that  is,  of  carrying  off  the  superfluous  water  that 
falls  or  seeps  into  the  ground.  From  what  you  have 
just  read  (Sec.  17)  about  the  effect  of  too  much  water  in 
the  soil,  you  will  understand  some  of  the  benefits  of 
drainage.  If  the  water  is  carried  off,  there  is  more 
room  for  air  in  the  soil.  The  roots  will  grow  deeper. 
The  soil  will  be  warmer.  Excess  soluble  substances  in 
the  soil,  which  may  be  injurious  to  crop  growth,  will  be 
removed  and  the  soil  will  really  provide  more  available 
moisture  during  the  season. 

The  fact  that  in  drained  land  the  roots  can  go  deeper 
is  beneficial  in  several  ways.  These  roots  will  feed  in 
the  deeper  soil  and  will  take  less  water  from  the  surface. 
So  long  as  the  water  is  not  drawn  from  the  surface  layer 
of  soil,  the  moisture  below  will  not  rise  by  the  force  of 


WATER    IN    THE    SOIL  27 

capillarity  (Sec.  14).  It  will  be  stored  up  until  needed. 
Later  in  the  season  when  a  dry  time  comes,  this  store  of 
water  will  rise  toward  the  surface  as  the  moisture  there 
evaporates.  Thus  you  see  that  drainage  improves  the 
condition  of  the  soil  in  such  a  way  as  to  increase  its 
capacity  to  hold  available  water  without  the  evils  that 
attend  the  presence  of  superfluous  water. 

Deep-growing  roots  also  open  up  places  for  the  air 
to  penetrate  farther  into  the  soil.  As  underground 
water  is  drained  off,  clay  in  the  soil  shrinks  and  cracks, 
and  these  cracks  offer  another  means  by  which  air  gets 
into  the  soil.  It  is  important  to. provide  drainage  for 
a  clayey  soil;  for  a  sandy  soil  this  generally  is  not 
necessary. 

When  land  is  drained,  the  water  from  rains  can  sink 
into  the  ground.  Otherwise  the  rains  may  wash  away 
the  surface  soil  and  injure  plants. 

20.  Methods  of  Drainage. — The  best  method  of 
underdrainage  is  by  trenches,  with  hollow  tiles  at  the 


A  Tile  Drain. 


bottom.  The  trench  is  dug  two  and  one  half  feet  to 
four  feet  deep.  The  tiles  are  one  foot  long  or  more  and 
two  to  eight  inches  in  diameter.    They  are  placed  end 


28    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

to  end,  without  cementing,  on  a  gradual  grade,  and  the 
trench  is  filled  with  earth.  The  water  from  the  soil  gets 
into  the  tiles  through  the  small  spaces  where  the  ends 
join  and  flows  through  the  pipe  of  hollow  tiling.  The 
rows  of  tiles  are  placed  through  the  field  at  distances 
apart  varying  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  feet.  Some- 
times stones  are  used  instead  of  tiles.  They  are  laid  in 
the  ditch  so  as  to  form  a  channel  for  the  water. 

Farmers  sometimes  drain  their  land  by  open  ditches, 
but  it  is  hard  to  work  a  field  cut  up  in  this  way.  When 
such  ditches  must  be  had,  it  is  best,  if  possible,  to  make 
them  so  broad  and  gently  sloping  as  to  permit  their 
being  kept  in  grass  and  readily  mowed  with  a  machine. 
Sometimes  the  ditches  are  filled  with  stones  or  brush, 
and  it  is  then  more  difficult  to  keep  the  weeds  down. 
Such  an  arrangement  is  much  less  satisfactory  than  tile 
drains,  which  are  less  expensive  to  keep  up,  are  more 
permanent,  more  effective,  leave  no  obstructions  on  the 
surface,  and  waste  no  land. 

SUMMARY 

Water  exists  in  the  soil  as  free  water  and  film  water. — Water 
moves  through  the  porous  soil  by  the  force  of  capillarity. — Dif- 
ferent crops  use  300  to  500  pounds  of  water  to  produce  one 
pound  of  dry  matter. — The  water  serves  the  plant  as  food,  to 
carry  food,  and  to  render  the  plant  stiff  and  rigid. — Too  little 
water  robs  the  plant  of  its  food  and  allows  it  to  wither. — Too 
much  water  in  the  soil  injures  the  plant  by  keeping  air  out  of 
the  soil,  by  preventing  the  roots  from  penetrating  the  soil,  and 
by  making  the  soil  cold. 

The  moisture-holding  capacity  of  the  soil  may  be  increased 
by  tilling,  by  adding  humus,  and  by  drainage. — Underdrainage 


WATER    IN    THE    SOIL  29 

allows  the  plant  to  root  deeply,  opens  up  the  soil  for  the  ad- 
mission of  air,  deepens  the  feeding  ground  of  the  plant, 
increases  the  capacity  of, the  soil  to  hold  water,  and  lessens 
washing  by  rains.  Draining  by  tiles  is  the  best  method  of 
underdrainage. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  What  kind  of  soil  allows  the  free  water  to  pass  through 
most  readily? 

2.  Give  illustrations  of  capillarity,  or  capillary  attraction. 

3.  Which  would  be  better,  to  water  a  lawn  or  garden  a  little 
and  do  it  often,  or  give  it  a  thorough  soaking  once  in  a  while? 
Why? 

4.  Would  you  pick  lettuce  early  in  the  morning  or  in  the 
middle  of  the  forenoon?     Why?     (Sec.  16.) 

5.  Can  every  piece  of  land  be  drained?  What  conditions 
are  necessary  in  order  that  it  may  be  drained? 

6.  It  is  said  that  wheat  uses  4-33  pounds  of  water  to  produce 
one  pound  of  dry  matter.  At  30  bushels  to  the  acre  (60  pounds 
per  bushel),  how  many  tons  of  water  per  acre  would  be  required? 

7.  One  inch  of  water  over  an  acre  weighs  nearly  100  tons. 
Can  you  find  what  is  the  weight  of  the  annual  rainfall  in  your 
vicinity?  How  many  inches  would  be  necessary  for  the  number 
of  tons  found  in  Question  6?  The  wheat  straw  will  weigh  one 
and  one  half  times  as  much  as  the  grain.  How  much  water  will 
it  require? 

8.  Why  will  a  crop  on  well-drained  land  have  more  time  to 
mature  than  on  undrained  land? 

9.  If  a  cube  an  inch  on  each  side  is  divided  into  cubes  one 
eighth  of  an  inch  on  each  side,  how  many  cubes  will  there  be? 

10.  How  many  times  as  much  surface  will  the  little  cubes 
have? 


CHAPTER  IV 

TILLING  THE  SOIL 

21.  Tillage. — Tilling  the  soil  is  one  of  the  means  by 
which  farmers  improve  their  land.  Plowing  partly  in- 
verts the  soil  and  grinds  the  particles  together.  Culti- 
vation stirs  and  loosens  the  surface  soil  and  thereby 
makes  it  finer.  These  operations  change  the  texture  of 
the  soil,  as  we  say. 

When  an  entire  field  is  tilled,  the  operation  is  called 
general  tillage.  This  is  done  usually  to  prepare  the  soil 
for  the  planting  of  seeds  or  to  mix  with  the  soil  manure 
that  has  been  spread  over  the  surface. 

Sometimes  after  the  plants  have  come  up  the  soil  is 
tilled  between  the  rows  of  plants.  This  is  called  inter- 
tillage. 

In  its  larger  sense  the  word  cultivation  means  the 
same  as  tillage.  More  narrowly,  it  means  the  use  of 
the  cultivator  to  stir  the  surface  soil. 

22.  Objects  of  Tillage. — Briefly,  the  object  of  tillage 
is  to  put  the  soil  in  such  a  physical  condition  that  it 
makes  an  ideal  home  for  plant  roots.  There  are  many 
reasons  why  plants  need  a  loose,  fine  soil.  If  the  soil  is 
in  lumps,  the  tiny  roots  cannot  enter  it  easily,  and  it 
will  neither  support  the  plant  nor  give  it  food.     Tillage 

30 


Pin  WING   WITH   A    FoUR-HORSE   TEAM   ON   A   RANCH    IN    OKLAHOMA. 


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81 


32    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

gives  depth  of  soil  so  that  there  is  ample  living  room,  a 
large  feeding  area,  an  abundant  storage  for  moisture,  and 
available  plant  food.  A  lumpy  soil  and  a  hard  crust 
covering  the  surface  will  keep  out  the  air,  which  is  neces- 
sary to  soil  activities.  We  learned  in  the  last  chapter 
(Sec.  18)  that  a  fine  soil  gives  more  room  for  water 
among  the  particles  of  earth.  In  a  fine  soil  this  moisture 
can  circulate  better  and  tillage  is  a  great  help  to  certain 
very  important  soil  organisms  that  make  plant  food 
available,  which  we  have  not  spoken  about  yet. 

23.  Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed.— Seeds  especially 
require  a  good  soil  for  their  growth,  and  tillage  helps  to 
prepare  the  proper  seed  bed.  In  the  spring  the  soil  is 
turned  over  so  that  the  sun  may  warm  it  and  is  har- 
rowed down  into  a  fine  smooth  bed.  The  soil  must  be 
fine  and  loose,  so  that  when  the  seed  sprouts  its  delicate 
stems  and  rootlets  may  easily  get  through  the  soil  and 
close  to  the  soil  particles.  In  some  cases  it  is  desirable 
to  till  the  ground  just  before  the  young  shoots  come  up, 
so  as  to  break  the  crust  for  them.  • 

24.  Regulation  of  Moisture. — Tillage  helps  to  regulate 
the  amount  and  movement  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  When 
a  few  inches  of  the  surface  soil  have  been  loosened,  the 
rain  water  will  sink  in  instead  of  washing  off  the  land 
and  being  wasted. 

This  loose  soil  on  top  makes  what  is  called  a  sur- 
face mulch.  In  loose  earth  the  particles  of  soil  are  more 
separated,  so  that  there  is  more  space  between  them. 
Water  does  not  readily  pass  through  dry,  loose  soil  by 
capillarity,  for,  in  the  loose  soil,  the  capillary  pores  are 
broken  up.     So  this  surface  mulch  prevents  the  ground 


TILLING    THE    SOIL  33 

from  drying  out  by  making  it  impossible  for  the  deeper- 
lying  moisture  to  reach  the  surface. 

When  possible,  the  land  should  be  tilled  after  each 
rain  to  keep  the  soil  loose.  By  repeating  this  so  that 
two  or  three  inches  of  soil  on  top  are  always  loose  and 
dry,  the  farmer  can  keep  most  crops  alive  even  in  the 
driest  weather.  Tillage,  then,  accomplishes  two  im- 
portant things :  it  carries"  rain  water  to  the  roots,  and  it 
prevents  moisture  stored  deep  in  the  soil  from  coming 
to  the  surface  and  evaporating. 

25.  Other  Uses.— Soil  is  often  tilled  to  cover  barn- 
yard manure  and  green  manures,  that  is,  green  crops 
intended  to  be  mixed  with  the  soil  to  form  humus. 
These  are  all  plowed  under  so  that  they  may  decay  and 
enrich  the  soil.  They  provide  valuable  food  for  the 
plant  and  in  many  ways  improve  the  physical  condition 
of  the  soil. 

Still  another  use  of  tillage,  and  one  that  farmers 
count  of  much  importance,  is  the  destruction  of  weeds. 
The  plow,  or  cultivator,  uprooting  them,  hinders  their 
growth.  The  best  time  to  kill  weeds  is  just  as  they 
come  up,  and  before  they  are  large  enough  to  do  any 
damage. 

26.  A  Risk  in  Tilling. — In  tilling  between  the  rows 
of  growing  crops,  great  care  must  be  used  not  to  disturb 
the  roots.  Corn  and  some  other  plants  send  their  roots 
out  between  the  rows  and  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
While  tillage  is  very  beneficial  to  the  com  crop,  which 
needs  plenty  of  moisture,  the  farmer  must  watch  that  the 
cultivator  does  not  go  deep  enough  to  break  the  fine 
roots. 


34    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

27.  Importance  of  Good  Tillage. — It  is  evident  that 
one  of  the  most  important  things  for  the  farmer  to  con- 
sider is  the  tillage  of  his  soil.  Even  though  there  may 
be  plenty  of  plant  food  in  the  soil  and  plenty  of  water 
and  sunshine,  all  these  will  not  produce  a  good  crop 
unless  the  texture  of  the  soil  is  right.  This  is  obtained 
chiefly  by  good  tillage.  Moreover,  a  lack  of  the  proper 
amount  of  plant  food,  water,  and  air  may  be  largely 
remedied  by  tillage. 

1.  Raise  plants  in  two  boxes  of  soil;  let  the  soil  in  one  box 
be  undisturbed  and  keep  the  other  thoroughly  tilled.  See 
whether  one  plant  thrives  better  than  the  other. 

2.  Raise  a  plant  in  a  porous  flowerpot  and  another  in  a  tin 
can.  Otherwise  treat  them  just  alike  and  note  whether  one 
thrives  better  than  the  other. 

In  1731  Jethro  Tull,  in  England,  discovered  the  value 
of  tilling  the  soil.  He  learned  that  he  could  get  better 
crops  by  thorough  tillage.  Knowing  that  the  plants  got 
more  food  in  this  way,  he  thought  that  plants  took  in 
fine  particles  of  soil  as  food.  He  wrote  a  book  to  show 
the  value  of  tilling  the  soil  for  this  purpose,  and  though 
his  reasons  were  wrong  he  did  much  good  by  showing 
farmers  everywhere  the  value  of  tillage. 

28.  Tillage  Implements — The  Plow. — The  most  im- 
portant tools  used  in  tillage  are  the  plow,  harrow, 
planker,  roller,  rake,  and  hoe. 

The  plow  is  the  most  important  tool.  Its  work  lays 
the  foundation  for  the  use  of  the  other  tillage  tools.  It 
consists  of  a  standard  to  which  the  other  parts  are  at- 
tached, the  beam,  by  which  it  is  drawn;  the  share,  which 
cuts  the  furrow  slice  at  the  bottom;  the  mold  board, 


TILLING    THE    SOIL  35 

which  turns  and  pulverizes  the  furrow  slice;  the  land- 
side,  and  the  handles,  by  which  the  plow  is  held.  Be- 
sides these  chief  parts 
arc  the  clevis,  by  which 
the  plow  is  attached 
to  the  doubletree,  and 
the  coulter,  which  is 
sometimes  used  to  cut 

A  PLOW. 

the    furrow   slice.      A 

jointer  is  frequently  attached  to  the  beam  to  cut  and 

turn  the  sod  when  plowing  sod  land. 

The  plow  cuts  the  furrow  in  slices  and  turns  it  over. 
At  the  same  time  it  breaks  up  the  soil,  or  pulverizes  it. 
This  is  accomplished  by  grinding  the  different  layers  of 
soil  upon  each  other.  You  can  see  how  this  is  done  by 
bending  up  the  corners  of  a  pamphlet  and  letting  the 
leaves  slip  on  each  other.  In  a  similar  way  the  plow 
causes  the  soil  to  slip  and  become  fine. 

In  order  that  plowing  may  pulverize  the  soil  suc- 
cessfully, the  soil  must  be  in  just  the  right  condition 
of  dampness.  If  it  is  too  wet,  the  particles  will 
stick  together.  If  too  dry,  it  will  crumble  where  the 
plow  cuts  it  and  the  rest  of  the  furrow  slice  will  not  be 
broken  up. 

The  furrow  slice  should  not  be  turned  over  entirely, 
but  left  on  its  edge.  In  this  way  the  weather  can  act  on 
it  (Sec.  23).  This  is  especially  important  in  fall  plowing. 
Fields  are  plowed  in  the  fall  chiefly  in  order  to  let  the 
weather  act  on  the  soil  during  the  fall  and  winter. 

29.  Harrows,  Plankers,  and  Rollers. — After  the  field 
is  plowed,  the  clods  of  earth  must  be  broken  up  and  a 


36    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

fine,  loose  surface  made.  Harrows,  either  disk,  spike, 
or  tooth,  are  used  for  this  purpose.  The  disk  harrow 
is  used  on  hard  land  and  on  sod  to  cut  up  the  sod 

and  loosen  the  soil 
from  the  grass  roots. 
A  fine-toothed  har- 
row, or  sometimes  a 
planker  or  roller,  is 
used  for  the  final 
a  harrow.  9      work  of  preparing  the 

ground  for  the  seed. 
The  planker  is  made  by  bolting  together  three  or 
four  planks  like  clapboards  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  a 
rough    surface.      This 
further      breaks      the 
clods  and  smooths  the 
ground.     The  planker,  A  Planker. 

however,  is   likely   to 

destroy  the  surface  mulch.  If  this  is  done,  the  ground 
must  soon  be  harrowed  again  to  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  a  hard  crust  and  the  drying  of  the  land. 

A  roller  is  sometimes  used  to  break  the  clods  and  to 
pack,  or  compact,  the  soil  about  the  seeds.  The  soil 
soon  dries  out  after  a  roller  has  been  used,  so  that  it 
should  be  followed  by  a  light  harrow  to  produce  a  surface 
mulch. 

Go  to  a  place  where  plows  and  other  farm  machinery  are 
sold  and  examine  all  kinds  of  tillage  implements. 

It  is  time  and  labor  well  spent  to  take  proper  care  of 
farming  tools.     The  soil  should  be  cleaned  off  from 


TILLING    THE    SOIL  37 

plowshares  and  cultivator  teeth  and  the  machines  put 
under  cover  when  not  in  use.  This  is  especially  true  of 
hoes,  rakes,  shovels,  and  spades  which  should  never  be 
allowed  to  get  rusty. 

30.  Dry  Farming. — A  new  or  improved  method  of 
agriculture,  called  dry  farming,  has  recently  been  used 
in  some  parts  of  the  West,  notably  in  western  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  eastern  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and 
Texas.  The  method  aims  to  save  what  little  rainfall 
there  is.  This  is  done  by  continually  stirring  the  ground, 
so  that  the  rains  will  be  quickly  absorbed  and  evaporation 
prevented.  After  one  crop  is  removed,  the  land  is  im- 
mediately worked  again.  Sometimes  it  is  tilled  all  of  one 
year  to  store  up  moisture  so  that  a  crop  can  be  grown 
the  following  year.  This  gives  one  crop  in  two  years. 
With  more  rainfall  two  crops  are  grown  in  three  years, 
and  with  still  more,  a  crop  is  grown  every  year,  but  in 
each  case  the  same  principles  are  applied. 

By  these  methods  good  crops  are  being  raised  every 
year  where  formerly  a  good  crop  was  an  exception.  It 
was  previously  thought  that  an  annual  rainfall  of  about 
thirty  inches  was  necessary,  but  farmers  are  producing 
good  crops  by  dry  farming  with  only  ten,  twelve,  or 
fifteen  inches  of  rain  annually.  Vast  areas  of  dry  lands 
in  our  country  that  have  been  considered  useless,  except 
for  grazing,  may  now  be  made  profitable  by  these  new 
methods. 

Seeds  from  foreign  countries,  especially  adapted  to 

dry   climate,   are  selected   for   these   regions.     Among 

them  are  macaroni  wheat,  Turkestan  alfalfa,  dwarf  Milo 

maize,  Swedish  oats,  corn,  barley,  and  potatoes.      1'p  to 

4 


38    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

the  present,  the  main  product  of  dry  farms  has  been 
wheat. 

SUMMARY       , 

Tilling  the  soil  is  working  it  to  change  its  texture. — General 
tillage  is  for  the  purpose  of.  producing  a  good  seed  bed. — Inter- 
tillage  is  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  air  in  the  soil,  conserving 
moisture,  and  destroying  weeds. — Tilling  makes  the  soil  finer; 
increases  the  surface  of  the  soil  particles,  thus  making  a  larger 
feeding  ground  for  the  plants;  increases  the  water-holding  ca- 
pacity of  the  soil  by  making  a  surface  mulch  which  prevents 
evaporation;  kills  or  hinders  the  growth  of  weeds. 

The  tools  used  for  tillage  are  the  plow,  disk  harrow,  toothed 
harrow,  cultivator,  planker  and  roller,  rake,  hoe,  and  other 
hand  tools. — Harrows  are  used  to  pulverize  the  soil. — Plankers 
and  rollers  are  used  to  crush  clods,  and  to  make  the  soil  more 
compact  and  bring  it  in  contact  with  the  seeds. — For  successful 
plowing  the  soil  should  be  just  moist  enough  to  turn  in  a  furrow. 
— The  main  objects  of  plowing  are  to  overturn  and  break  the 
soil  and  to  plow  under  manures. — Fall  plowing  is  to  expose  the 
soil  to  the  action  of  the  weather. 

The  methods  of  dry  farming  aim  to  preserve  moisture  in 
very  dry  soils  so  that  good  crops  can  be  grown  there. 


QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  Why  do  we  cultivate  and  hoe  corn? 

2.  Why  does  the  soil  in  a  flowerpot  often  produce  so  much 
better  plants  than  the  same  amount  of  soil  in  the  field? 

3.  Why  are  weeds  bad  for  crops? 

4.  Why  does  the  garden  raise  larger  crops  than  the  field? 

5.  Why  should  plows,  harrows,  and  tools  be  housed? 

6.  If  soil  is  cultivated  five  inches  deep,  how  many  cubic 
feet  to  the  acre  are  cultivated?  If  seven  inches  deep,  how 
many  cubic  feet?     If  nine  inches  deep,  how  many  cubic  feet? 


TILLING    THE    SOIL  39 

7.  How  many  acres  are  there  in  a  piece  of  land  32  rods  long 
by  20  rods  wide? 

8.  If  land  of  that  measurement  is  plowed  back  and  forth 
with  furrows  nine  inches  wide,  how  far  will  a  man  travel  to  plow 
it? 

9.  If  by  extra  cultivation  a  man  can  raise  100  bushels  of 
potatoes  more  an  acre,  how  many  days'  work  would  thus  be 
paid  for,  allowing  $3  per  day  for  man  and  team,  if  the  potatoes 
bring  25  cents  per  bushel? 

10.  How  may  any  one  who  has  a  garden  apply  the  lesson  of 
dry  farming? 

11.  Give  two  reasons  for  maintaining  a  surface  mulch. 

12.  In  what  way  may  tillage  injure  a  crop? 


OF  the 
UNIVERSITY 

OF 

sS^tiFoiniii 


CHAPTER  V 

ENRICHING   THE   SOIL 

31.  Elements  and  Compounds. — There  are  three 
foods  which  are  necessary  to  the  growth  of  plants  which 
farmers  often  have  to  supply  to  the  soil.  These  are 
nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium.  These  substances 
are  called  elements.  An  element,  according  to  chem- 
istry, is  a  substance  composed  of  only  one  kind  of  matter. 
There  are  about  eighty  distinct  and  different  elements  in 
the  world.  Most  substances  that  we  see  around  us  are 
made  up  of  several  elements  combined.  Two  or  more 
elements  combined  make  what  is  called  a  compound.  A 
compound  can  be  separated  into  two  or  more  different 
kinds  of  matter  that  may  have  no  resemblance  whatever 
to  the  original  compound.  The  elements  on  which  the 
plant  feeds  enter  the  plant  not  as  elements,  but  united 
with  something  else  in  the  form  of  compounds.  There 
are,  in  fact,  about  thirteen  different  elements  that  are 
used  by  plants  as  food.  The  soil  generally  contains  an 
abundant  supply  of  all  but  the  three  mentioned  above. 
In  addition  to  these  three,  lime,  magnesium,  and  iron 
are  indispensable  to  plant  growth. 

Nitrogen.— Nitrogen,  being  an  element,  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated into  parts  that  are  anything  but  the  nitrogen  itself, 

40 


ENRICHING    THE    SOIL  41 

It  is  a  gas.  It  forms  four  fifths  of  the  air  we  breathe; 
the  other  one  fifth  is  mostly  oxygen,  as  you  have  prob- 
ably learned  from  your  physiology  text-book.  Nitrogen 
will  not  burn.  When  available  for  the  plant,  it  is  com- 
bined with  oxygen  and  a  metal,  as  sodium  or  potassium. 
Such  a  substance  is  called  a  nitrate,  as  nitrate  of  sodium 
or  nitrate  of  potassium.  The  root  hairs,  however,  take 
from  the  solution  of  sodium  nitrate  the  nitric  acid  and 
leave  the  sodium. 

Phosphorus. — You  have  all  heard  of  phosphorus,  for 
it  is  commonly  used  in  the  making  of  matches.  It  is  a 
scarcer  element  than  nitrogen,  though  more  familiar  to 
us.  Its  chief  characteristic  is  that  it  takes  fire  readily. 
Phosphorus  may  be  obtained  from  bones,  in  which  it  is 
combined  with  oxygen  and  a  metal  called  calcium,  an 
important  element  in  lime.  The  combination  of  phos- 
phorus, oxygen,  and  calcium  makes  a  substance  called 
calcium  phosphate,  or  phosphate  of  lime.  Shells  of 
lobsters,  crawfish,  and  like  animals  contain  calcium 
phosphate  in  large  quantities.  Phosphorus  is  found  also 
in  a  mineral  called  apatite,  and  in  guano.  There  are 
large  deposits  of  phosphate  rock  in  Florida,  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Tennessee. 

Potassium. — Potassium  is  a  silvery  white  metal,  soft 
as  wax  and  light  enough  to  float  on  water.  It  has  to  be 
kept  in  air-tight  bottles  or  under  kerosene  to  prevent  its 
absorbing  oxygen  out  of  the  air  or  water.  Potassium 
i-  found  combined  with  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  a  salt 
called  nitrate  of  potassium,  or  saltpeter.  In  the  soil  it 
exists  as  sulphates  and  chlorides  and  in  other  forms  in 
which  it  can  be  dissolved  and  used  by  plants.     Feldspar 


42    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  potassium.  It  is  found  also 
in  wood  ashes  in  the  form  of  potassium  carbonate  or 
potash.  The  potash1  needed  for  plants  can  be  ob- 
tained from  manures  and  from  wood  ashes  by  pouring 
water  through  a  barrel  of  such  ashes  or  by  plowing  under 
the  manure  or  ashes.  The  water  will  take  the  potash 
out  of  the  ashes.  The  chief  source  of  potash  used  in 
commercial  fertilizers  is  found  in  mines  in  Germany, 
where  it  is  mined  like  salt. 

With  a  tenpenny  nail  punch  some  holes  through  the  bottom 
of  a  tin  can.  Put  a  piece  of  cloth  in  the  bottom  of  the  can 
and  then  fill  the  can  with  ashes.  Pour  a  pint  of  hot  water 
through  the  ashes,  catching  that  which  drips  through  in  some 
sort  of  vessel.  Pour  the  same  water  through  two  or  three 
times.  Evaporate  the  lye  so  obtained,  either  in  the  sun  or  on 
a  stove.  That  which  remains  is  crude  potash,  a  compound  of 
potassium,  carbon,  and  oxygen. 

32.  The  Source  of  the  Three  Kinds  of  Plant  Foods. — 

Potassium  gets  into  the  soil  chiefly  from  the  feldspar  in 
granite  rocks.  The  action  of  the  weather  breaks  up  the 
feldspar,  and  the  potash  is  set  free  or  made  available. 
Growing  plants  take  up  this  potash.  When  the  plants 
decay  or  are  burned,  the  remains  or  ashes  contain  the 
potash. 

The  decay  of  rocks  is  the  original  source  also  of  phos- 
phorus. This  changes  in  the  process  of  decay,  and  phos- 
phoric acid  results.  Plants  feed  on  this,  and  animals 
feeding  on  the  plants  take  in  the  phosphoric  acid,  which 

1  The  potash  referred  to  in  tables  and  statements  giving  the 
amount  of  potash  in  soils  and  plants  is  another  compound,  viz., 
potassium  and  oxygen. 


ENRICHING    THE    SOIL  43 

combines  with  other  substances  to  make  bones.  By  the 
decay  of  plants  or  of  bones  the  plant  food  is  again  set 
free  in  the  soil.  And  so  the  same  material  goes  round 
and  round.  As  the  scientist  says,  "It  performs  the 
cycle  of  nature." 

Nitrogen  for  the  plant  comes  from  the  air  (Sec.  31) 
and  from  the  humus  of  the  soil.  Nitrogen  in  the  air 
among  the  soil  particles  is  absorbed  and  stored  up  in 
microscopic  plant  growths  called  bacteria.  These  bac- 
teria grow  in  little  bunches,  or  tubercles,  upon  the  roots 
of  certain  plants.  From  these  tubercles  the  nitrogen 
can  be  released  to  feed  other  plants,  as  will  be  explained 
in  Chapter  VI  (Sec.  42). 

Other  bacteria  not  living  on  the  roots  of  plants  ab- 
sorb nitrogen  from  the  soil  air.  They  help  the  decay  of 
plant  growths  and  the  humus  of  the  soil,  and  from  this 
decay  ammonia  and  nitrates  are  formed,  making  the 
needed  plant  food.  These  free-living  bacteria  are  in- 
dispensable agents  in  the  soil.  As  an  instance  of  the 
work  they  do,  we  mention  two  fields  at  Rothamsted, 
England,  which  had  run  wild  for  twenty-five  years.  In 
one  field  the  amount  of  nitrogen  taken  from  the  soil  and 
air  and  left  in  the  soil  was  forty-five  pounds  per  acre  per 
year;  in  the  other  field  it  was  ninety-eight  pounds.  The 
greater  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  second  field  was  prob- 
ably due  to  an  abundant  supply  of  carbonate  of  lime  or 
limestone. 

33.  How  These  Foods  Get  Into  the  Plant— The  plant 
foods  get  into  the  plant  and  pass  through  it  by  a  process 
called  osmosis.  The  foods  are  dissolved  in  soil  water, 
which  we  then  call  the  soil  solution,  and  in  the  solution 


44    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


pass  from  the  soil  into  the  tiny  root  hairs  of  the  plant. 
As  fast  as  the  plant  makes  use  of  this  food,  more  of  it  is 
absorbed  from  the  soil  solution  by  the  roots. 

In  the  minute  cells  of  which  these  root  hairs  are 
made,  there  is  something  called  protoplasm,  which  is  the 
living  part  of  the  plant.  This  protoplasm  in  the  root 
hairs,  by  the  process  called  osmosis,  draws  in  this  soil 
solution,  which  passes  into  the  cells  of  the  root  and  moves 
up  through  the  stem  and  branches,  and  feeds  all  the 
tissues  of  the  plant.  Thus  by  a 
constantly  moving  current  the  plant 
gets  its  nourishment. 

You  can  surely  understand  now 
how  important  it  is  that  the  soil  so- 
lution should  be  in  just  the  right  con- 
dition to  enter  the  plant  properly 
(Sec.  4).  You  know  also  that  the 
soil  must  be  fine  so  that  there  may 
be  a  great  amount  of  surface  to  hold 
soil  water  (Sec.  18). 


To  illustrate  osmosis,  carefully  remove 
a  small  piece  of  the  shell  from  one  end 
of  an  egg  and   place  the  egg  in  water. 
The  water  will  pass  through  the  unbroken 
membrane  of  the  egg,  causing  the  mem- 
.   brane  to  bulge  out  of  the  shell.    Another 
good  experiment  is  to  take  a  cork  (rub- 
Ex  pekiment  Showing   ber  preferred)  with  a  hole  in  it.     Into  the 
Osmosis.  noie  nt  a  giass  tube  the  size  of  a  lead  pencil 

and  a  foot  or  more  long.  Bore  a  hole  into 
the  end  of  a  carrot  large  enough  to  receive  the  cork  and  two 
inches  or  more  deep.  Nearly  fill  the  hole  in  the  carrot  with  sugar 


ENRICHING    THE    SOIL  45 

sirup  and  insert  the  cork  so  that  it  fits  snugly.  Place  the  carrot 
in  a  bottle  of  water.  The  sirup  will  pass  out  through  the  cells 
of  the  carrot  and  the  water  will  pass  in  faster  than  the  sirup 
passes  out,  so  the  water  and  sirup  will  be  pushed  up  the  tube. 

34.  The  Use  to  the  Plant  of  Each  Kind  of  Food.— 
It  is  still  uncertain  just  what  each  of  the  important  plant 
foods,  potassium,  phosphorus,  and  nitrogen,  does  for  the 
plant.  Some  things,  however,  have  been  determined. 
We  know  that  the  absence  of  any  one  of  these  necessary 
to  the  development  of  a  certain  crop  will  result  in  a 
weak,  unsatisfactory  growth. 

If  there  is  not  sufficient  potassium  in  the  plant  food, 
the  plant  will  grow  slowly  or  stop  growing.  The  addi- 
tion of  certain  substances  containing  potassium  to  the 
soil  will  again  start  the  plant's  activities.  Potassium 
seems  especially  necessary  in  producing  vigorous  fruit 
plants  and  potatoes. 

One  thousand  pounds  of  winter  wheat  contain  an 
average  of  about  five  pounds  of  potash,  which  is  a  com- 
pound of  potassium  and  oxygen.  The  same  quantity 
1 1  straw  contains  about  six  pounds  of  potash.  This  is  a 
heavy  drain  on  the  supply  in  the  soil  and  all  the  potash 
in  the  waste  straw  should  be  put  back  into  the  soil. 
Farmers  formerly  got  rid  of  the  straw  that  was  left  after 
the  wheat  was  threshed  by  burning  it.  After  some 
years  of  this  practice,  the  growing  crops  would  not  hold 
up  their  stalks  long  enough  to  allow  the  grain  to  ripen. 
The  tanners  then  said  that  the  land  was  becoming  so 
rich  that  it  grew  wheat  too  large  to  stand  up.  They 
have  since  learned  better.  The  soil  needed  more  potash 
to  make  the  stalks  stronger.     This  potash  can  be  put 


46   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

into  the  soil  by  plowing  into  it  the  straw  left  after  thresh- 
ing. This  straw  decays,  and  finally  the  potash  gets  into 
the  soil  solution  in  a  form  that  the  plants  can  feed  on. 

Phosphorus  makes  the  plant  vigorous  and  hardy.  A 
good  supply  is  needed  especially  in  the  early  stages  of 
the  plant's  life.  It  helps  to  make  the  seeds  plump 
and  good.  Grains  contain  even  more  phosphoric  acid 
than  potash.  Some  of  the  phosphorus  in  the  grain  is 
discarded  when  fine  flour  is  made,  and  for  this  reason 
fine  flour  is  not  so  complete  a  food  for  man  as  whole  flour. 

An  abundant  supply  of  nitrogen  results  in  the  pro- 
duction of  large,  healthy  leaves  and  stalks.  Hence  ni- 
trogen is  especially  valuable  for  the  plants  that  are 
raised  for  their  leaves  and  stalks,  as  lettuce,  asparagus, 
and  hay,  and  for  those  that  must  make  a  vigorous  growth 
before  setting  fruit  or  seed.  Wheat  and  other  grains 
take  much  nitrogen  from  the  soil.  One  thousand  pounds 
of  grain  contain  sixteen  to  twenty-four  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen. Beans,  peas,  and  such  plants  contain  much  nitro- 
gen; but  they  may  sometimes  leave  more  nitrogen  in  the 
soil  than  they  find  there,  as  we  shall  learn  in  the  next 
chapter. 

35.  Barnyard  Manure. — An  important  question  for 
the  farmer  is  how  he  shall  provide  the  food  needed  by 
his  growing  crops.  Close  at  hand  he  has  a  most  valuable 
source  of  plant  food.  His  barnyard  manure  contains 
material  which  the  plant  can  easily  use.  Each  thousand 
pounds  of  manure  contain  on  an  average  five  pounds 
each  of  nitrogen  and  potash,  and  three  and  one  third 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid. 

The  manure  may  be  spread  over  the  ground  or  it 


ENRICHING    THE    SOIL 


47 


may  be  plowed  into  the  soil.     As  it  decays,  it  makes  the 
humus  which  is  so  necessary  to  a  rich  soil.     The  texture 


Care  of  Barnyard  Manure — Wrong  way. 

of  the  soil  and  its  capacity  to  hold  moisture  are  im- 
proved by  this  means  (Sec.  18). 

It  is  asserted  by  some  authorities  that  the  manure 
"  produced  annually  by  each  horse  or  mule  is  worth  $27, 


Care  op  Barnyard  Manure — Right  way. 

by  each  head  of  cattle  $19,  by  each  hog  $12,  and  by 
each  sheep  $2."  Much  of  the  value,  however,  is  wasted 
by  the  slipshod  way  in  which  many  farmers  take  care  of 


48   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

the  manure.  By  exposure  to  rain  more  than  half  its 
value  may  be  lost.  To  preserve  its  full  value,  manure 
should  be  kept  moist,  compact,  and  under  cover,  or  else 
it  should  immediately  be  spread  on  the  land. 

36.  Other  Ways  of  Enriching  the  Soil. — Growing 
crops  and  stubble  when  plowed  under  add  some  of  the 
needed  food  elements  to  the  soil  and  improve  the  tex- 
ture of  the  soil.  We  have  read  how  the  straw  from 
grains  returns  potash  to  the  soil  when  plowed  in  (Sec. 
34).  Stubble  must  always  be  plowed  under.  The  ques- 
tion of  plowing  under  green,  unharvested  crops,  how- 
ever, is  one  that  needs  the  farmer's  best  judgment. 
There  is  some  danger  that  the  addition  of  such  material 
may  make  the  soil  too  dry  and  perhaps  leave  it  too  loose 
for  seeding.  This  is  especially  true  with  light  soils,  and 
a  great  mass  of  green  material  should  not  be  plowed 
under;  with  heavy  soils  the  danger  is  much  less.  In  case 
of  a  droughc,  such  plowed-under  crops  will  not  decay 
properly  so  as  to  make  good  humus.  The  time  to  plow 
under  green  crops  or  "  green  manures  "  is  very  important 
and  is  determined  largely  by  seasonal  conditions  and  the 
crop  that  is  to  follow. 

37.  Commercial  Fertilizers. — Another  resource  of  the 
farmer  for  enriching  the  soil  is  commercial  fertilizers. 
He  can  buy,  by  the  bag,  material  containing  nitrogen, 
phosphorus,  and  potassium  in  suitable  form  for  use  in 
the  soil.  In  many  states  it  is  required  by  law  that  these 
commercial  fertilizers  shall  be  analyzed  under  state 
supervision  and  their  sale  licensed  by  the  proper  author- 
ities. The  bags  in  which  they  are  packed  must  bear  a 
printed  statement  of  the  composition  of  the  fertilizer. 


ENKICHING    THE    SOIL  49 

Thus,  if  the  farmer  knows  the  particular  elements  needed 
by  the  crop  he  is  growing,  he  can  choose  the  kind  of  fer- 
tilizer that  contains  those  elements. 

In  some  localities  it  is  possible  to  buy  wood  ashes. 
These  contain  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  are  first- 
class  fertilizer  when  these  foods  are  needed.  Ashes  do 
not  supply  any  nitrogen,  however. 

It  is  cheaper,  of  course,  for  the  farmer  to  use  as  fer- 
tilizer the  manure  produced  on  the  farm.  This  also 
does  more  good  to  the  soil.  But  it  is  sometimes  desir- 
able to  supplement  it  with  commercial  fertilizers.  The 
farmer  can  rely  on  them  to  give  the  plant  quickly  the 
desired  food  elements. 

If  you  have  an  opportunity  to  work  in  a  garden  or  field,  ex- 
periment with  small  patches  of  land,  putting  no  manure  on  one 
patch,  cow  manure  on  another,  horse  manure  on  another,  wood 
ashes  on  a  fourth,  and  some  commercial  fertilizer  on  a  fifth. 
Study  carefully  the  effect  on  the  crops  grown  on  the  different 
patches. 

38.  Amendments. — It  remains  to  mention  another 
class  of  dressings  which  are  supplied  to  the  land  chiefly 
because  they  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil  or  improve 
the  chemical  condition.  Such  are  called  amendments. 
The  chief  of  these  is  lime.  Lime  is  added  to  clay  soil 
to  make  it  less  sticky,  and  to  sandy  soil  to  make  it  more 
compact.  Lime  also  counteracts  in  soils  the  effect  of 
acids,  which  otherwise*  might  harm  the  crop,  and  pro- 
motes chemical  activities  which  result  in  making  plant 
food  available.  It  is  most  likely  to  be  needed  by  clover 
and  alfalfa.  If  these  crops  grow  well  on  the  soil,  lime 
is  not  likely  to  benefit  other  crops. 


50    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Common  salt  is  another  substance  often  used  on 
soils.  It  helps  to  set  free  the  phosphates  in  the  soil  so 
that  the  plant  can  use  them.  The  best  results  are  se- 
cured in  dry  seasons,  because  the  addition  of  a  little  salt 
aids  in  the  movement  of  the  soil  water  so  that  more  be- 
comes available  to  plants.  Salt  should  be  used  spar- 
ingly, and  not  at  all  on  a  potato  or  a  tobacco  crop.  It 
will  pay  better  to  spend  the  money  for  commercial 
fertilizers. 

Gypsum  or  "land  plaster"  is  also  a  common  amend- 
ment.    Others  are  marl,  muck,  and  chalk. 

In  winter,  experiments  may  be  performed  by  planting  seeds 
in  several  boxes  or  flowerpots,  filling  them  with  sand,  mixtures 
of  sand  and  garden  soil,  sand  and  manure  in  various  proportions, 
sand  and  leaf  mold,  and  sand  with  various  commercial  fertil- 
izers added.  Keep  a  record  of  the  kind  of  soil  in  each  box  or 
flowerpot.  Watch  the  growth  of  the  plants  and  decide  which 
are  the  better  soils. 

39.  Nitrification. — We  have  said  that  the  various 
compounds  which  contain  the  elements  of  plant  food 
must  be  changed  before  the  plant  can  absorb  this  food. 
Such  changes  are  constantly  going  on  in  the  soil.  The 
process  by  which  the  different  compounds  containing 
nitrogen  are  changed  is  called  nitrification.  Lime  added 
to  the  soil  often  helps  this  process. 

Nitrification  is  the  work  of  minute  organisms  which 
are  active  under  certain  conditions.  It  consists  in  the 
union  of  nitrogen  compounds  with  oxygen,  and  is  the 
final  step  in  the  preparation  of  soil  nitrogen  for  the  use 
of  plants.  To  have  the  conditions  right  for  this  prepara- 
tion of  nitrogen  for  the  plant,  there  must  be  in  the  soil 


ENRICHING    THE    SOIL  51 

air,  moisture,  sufficient  warmth,  and  the  absence  of 
strong  sunlight.  There  must  be  food  for  the  minute 
organisms;  and  the  soil  must  contain  some  compound, 
such  as  calcium  carbonate  (limestone),  with  which  the 
nitrogen  may  unite. 

SUMMARY 

Everything  in  the  world  is  made  up  from  about  eighty  differ- 
ent elements,  thirteen  of  which  go  to  make  up  plants  and  animals. 
The  farmer  is  concerned  only  with  these  thirteen  elements,  and 
he  has  frequently  to  provide  for  three — nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
and  potassium. — Nitrogen  is  a  gas  and  constitutes  four  fifths 
of  the  air. — Phosphorus  is  the  substance  used  on  the  ends  of 
matches.  It  is  extracted  from  bones  and  other  substances. — 
Potassium  is  found  in  certain  rocks.  It  is  one  of  the  elements  in 
potash,  and  is  obtained  from  wood  ashes. 

The  three  chief  plant  foods  are  compounds  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus, and  potassium. — The  chief  nitrogen  compounds  are 
nitric  acid,,  ammonia,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  nitrate  of  potassium, 
and  nitrate  of  sodium. — The  chief  compound  of  phosphorus  is 
calcium  phosphate. — The  chief  potassium  compounds  are  nitrate 
of  potassium,  sodium  nitrate,  potassium  chlorid,  and  sulphate 
and  muriate  of  potash. 

All  these  compounds,  except  ammonia  and  nitric  acid,  are 
called  salts  and  may  be  found  in  solution  in  the  soil  water.  They 
are  derived  from  the  decay  of  rocks  and  bones,  from  wood  ashes, 
and  from  manures  or  fertilizers. — These  salts  reach  the  plant 
through  its  roots.  A  good  supply  of  the  compounds  of  nitrogen, 
phosphorus,  and  potassium  is  necessary  to  the  healthy  growth 
of  plants. 

The  most  important  enrichment  for  the  soil  is  barnyard 
manure.  It  contains  all  three  of  the  plant  foods  and  also  bene- 
fits the  land  by  improving  its  texture. — Green  crops  and  plowed- 
onder  stubble  enrich  the  land  and  improve  its  texture. — Com- 
mercial fertilizers  contain  plant  food  in  a  soluble  form  and  so 


52    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

produce  quick  results. — Nitrification  is  the  change  that  takes 
place  in  the  soil,  by  which  locked-up  nitrogen  is  made  available 
for  the  use  of  the  plant. 


QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  What  is  an  element? 

2.  What  is  a  compound? 

3.  How  many  elements  make  up  the  earth? 

4.  How  many  elements  does  the  plant  use? 

5.  Which  elements  must  the  farmer  often  supply? 

6.  By  what  process  does  the  plant  get  its  food  from  the  soil? 

7.  Name  four  kinds  of  plants  that  are  raised  for  their  leaves 
or  stalks.     What  element  is  especially  valuable  for  such  plants? 

8.  Is  it  a  good  practice  to  rake  leaves  into  the  road  and 
burn  them? 

9.  Why  are  soils  derived  from  granite  rocks  more  durable 
than  those  from  limestone? 

10.  One  thousand  pounds  of  tobacco  take  from  the  soil  42 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  5  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  57  pounds 
of  potash.  If  the  nitrogen  is  worth  15  cents  a  pound,  and  each 
of  the  others  5  cents  a  pound,  what  is  the  total  value  of  the 
substances  taken  from  the  soil? 

11.  One  thousand  pounds  of  corn  take  from  the  soil  18 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  17  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  4  pounds 
of  potash.  What  does  the  corn  cost  the  soil  in  plant  food  or 
money  cost,  based  on  $10? 

12.  If  1,000  pounds  of  wheat  remove  52  pounds  of  potash 
from  the  soil,  how  much  will  40  bushels  to  the  acre  remove  per 
acre? 

13.  If  the  straw  weighs  one  and  one  half  times  as  much  as 
the  grain  and  1,000  pounds  of  straw  remove  6.3  pounds  of 
potash,  how  much  will  the  straw  of  40  bushels  remove? 

14.  The  corresponding  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  is  7.9 
pounds  for  the  grain  and  2.2  pounds  for  the  straw  per  1,000 


ENRICHING    THE    SOIL  53 

pounds.     How  much  phosphoric  acid  will  be  removed  by  the 
40  bushels  of  wheat  and  the  straw? 

15.  The  corresponding  amount  of  nitrogen  is  20.8  pounds 
for  1,000  pounds  of  grain  and  4.8  for  1,000  pounds  of  straw. 
How  much  nitrogen  will  be  removed  by  40  bushels  of  grain  and 
its  straw  or  Problem  13? 

16.  If  a  ton  of  barnyard  manure  contains  10  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, 6  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  9  pounds  of  potash,  how 
many  tons  per  acre  should  be  used  to  make  up  for  what  the 
wheat  removes?  It  may  be  necessary  to  multiply  the  result 
by  5  because  only  part,  say,  one  fifth,  of  the  plant  food  is  avail- 
able the  first  season.  Ten  to  30  tons  is  considered  the  proper 
amount  by  different  authorities. 

17-  What  is  an  amendment? 

18.  What  is  meant  by  nitrification? 


CHAPTER  VI 

LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS.— ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

40.  Clover  and  Its  Relatives. — One  of  the  most  useful 
crops  that  can  be  grown  on  the  farm  is  clover.  This  may 
seem  surprising  to  you  because  clover  supplies  no  food 
for  man.  Its  usefulness  consists  in  its  improvement  of 
the  soil  for  the  growth  of  other  crops  in  addition  to  its 
feeding  value  for  farm  stock.  A  great  many  years  ago 
it  was  known  that  a  crop  of  clover  improved  the  soil  in 
which  it  was  grown,  but  only  recently  was  the  reason 
for  this  discovered. 

The  clover  belongs  to  a  family  of  plants  called 
leguminous  plants,  or  legumes.  These  plants  have  very 
irregular  flowers  generally  shaped  somewhat  like  butter- 
flies, and  seeds  in  a  long  pod  or  legume.  The  leaves  are 
compound,  that  is,  they  are  made  up  of  three  or  more 
leaflets  like  the  clover  and  locust.  The  family  is  called 
also  the  pulse  family.  To  this  family  belong,  besides 
the  clover,  the  locust  tree,  peas,  peanuts,  beans,  vetch, 
alfalfa,  and  some  other  plants. 

Make  a  collection  of  the  flowers  of  the  clover,  pea,  bean, 
alfalfa,  and  locust  and  note  the  similarity.  Notice  that  the 
leaves  of  all  such  plants  are  compound. 

54 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS 


55 


41.  Fixation  of  Nitrogen. — One  reason  that  clover  is 
so  useful  to  the  soil  is  because  it  takes  nitrogen  from 
the  soil  air  and  makes  it  available  for  the  nourishment 
of  other  plants.  The  process  of  getting  nitrogen  from 
the  air  and  leaving  it  in  the  soil  is  called  fixation  of 
nitrogen.  Many  books  have  been  written  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  many  experiments  have  been  made  with  the 
object  of  finding  other  ways  of  fixing  nitrogen  from  the 
air.     It  can  be  done  by  the  aid  of  electricity. 

42.  Legumes  as  Nitrogen  Gatherers. — Clover  and  other 
legumes  have  a  very 
special  way  of  making 
nitrogen  available  as 
plant  food.  One  might 
expect  that,  since  ni- 
trogen is  in  the  air, 
all  plants  could  get  it 
through  their  leaves; 
but  most,  if  not  all, 
plants  are  unable  to 
do  this. 

The  leguminous 
plants  have  on  their 
roots  little  bunches 
or  tubercles.  These 
tubercles  contain  min- 
ute, simple  plants 
called  bacteria.  These 
bacteria  can  take  ni- 
trogen gas  from  the  air  and  compound  it  with  other 
things,  making  nitrates,  which  furnish  food  for  the  plants 


Red  Clover  Roots  Showing 
Tubercles. 


56    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

on  which  the  bacteria  Jive.  When  the  roots  decay,  the 
nitrogen  is  left  in  the  soil,  and  other  plants  can  then 
use  it  (Sec.  32).  Moreover,  the  bacteria  may  make  more 
nitrates  than  can  be  used  by  the  plants  on  which  they 
grow.     The  extra  supply  goes  into  the  soil. 

Sometimes  the  germs  from  which  the  clover  bac- 
teria grow  are  not  found  in  the  soil,  and  the  clover  or 
other  leguminous  plant  does  not  grow  well.  In  such 
case  the  germs  can  be  supplied  by  adding,  at  the  time 
of  planting  the  seeds,  soil  which  contains  the  germs, 
obtained  from  land  where  clover  has  been  grown  success- 
fully. This  process  of  adding  bacteria  is  called  inocu- 
lation. 

Carefully  dig  up  a  bunch  of  clover  and  wash  away  the  soil 
from  the  roots  so  that  you  can  see  the  tubercles.  It  will  not  do 
to  pull  up  the  plants,  as  the  tubercles  will  then  be  left  in  the 
ground. 

These  bacteria,  of  which  there  are  many  kinds,  are 
similar  to  the  bacteria  that  you  may  have  learned  about 
in  your  physiology  lessons.  Fermentation  and  decays 
of  various  kinds  are  due  to  bacteria. 

43.  Other  Uses  of  Legumes. — Leguminous  plants 
benefit  the  soil  in  another  way.  They  are  deep  feeders, 
that  is,  their  roots  go  far  down  into  the  soil.  Thus  they 
may  feed  on  material  that  could  not  be  reached  by 
other  plants.  When  their  deep-reaching  roots  decay, 
they  leave  the  ground  porous  for  the  entrance  of  water, 
air,  and  the  roots  of  other  plants. 

Clover  crops  are  frequently  plowed  under,  and  in  this 
way  the  plant  food  which  they  contain  is  made  avail- 
able for  other  plants  and  humus  is  added  to  the  soil. 


KOTATION    OF    CROPS  57 

Leguminous  plants  have  large  leaves  and  stems  that 
are  useful  for  forage.  Alfalfa  is  becoming  especially 
popular  because  it  produces  a  great  quantity  of  hay; 
several  crops  may  be  taken  off  in  one  season  (Sec.  102). 
The  seeds  produced  by  certain  leguminous  plants  are 
especially  nutritious  as  food  for  man  and  beast.  Beans, 
peas,  and  peanuts,  for  example,  have  been  used  for  food 
in  all  ages. 

44.  Rotation  of  Crops. — It  is  evident  from  the  above 
how  advantageous  it  is  to  alternate  leguminous  plants 
with  other  crops.  There  are  other  reasons,  however, 
why  the  wise  farmer  does  not  raise  the  same  kind  of 
crop  year  after  year  on  a  piece  of  land.  He  plans  a 
series  of  three  or  four  different  crops  which  he  grows  in 
succession  on  each  field.  This  alternation  of  a  series  of 
crops  on  the  same  piece  of  land  is  called  rotation  of  crops. 

45.  Rotation  is  a  Weapon  Against  Pests. — An  im- 
portant reason  why  rotation  of  crops  is  not  only  expe- 
dient but  necessary  is  this — many  plants  are  attacked 
by  their  own  particular  kind  of  insects  or  fungous  dis- 
eases. After  a  crop  has  been  grown  on  a  piece  of  land 
for  some  time,  the  soil  is  filled  with  the  eggs  or  larvae 
of  the  insect  pest  or  with  the  germs  of  the  fungus. 
Therefore  it  becomes  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  starve 
out  these  pests  by  changing  the  crop  to  one  on  which 
they  do  not  feed.  For  example,  it  becomes  almost  im- 
possible to  raise  summer  squash  in  certain  gardens 
because  of  the  brown  squash  bug.  If  squash  is  not 
planted  there  for  a  few  years  the  bugs  go  elsewhere  and 
a  few  crops  of  squash  can  be  grown  before  the  bugs 
return.     Potato  scab  lives  in  the  soil,  and  if  once  estab- 


58    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

lished  and  not  eliminated  by  rotation  it  continues  to 
infest  successive  crops  of  potatoes. 

46.  Rotation  Destroys  Weeds. — If  crops  of  grain 
which  have  no  summer  tillage  are  raised  continuously, 
the  ground  becomes  overrun  with  weeds.  If  a  crop  of 
grain  is  followed  by  corn  or  potatoes  or  other  tilled  crop, 
the  soil  is  stirred  and  the  weeds  are  thus  destroyed. 
Different  crops  require  different  treatment,  and  this 
varying  treatment  is  good  for  the  soil.  Potatoes  and 
other  plants  that  have  food  products  on  their  roots  have 
to  be  dug  out  of  the  ground,  and  this  digging  leaves  the 
soil  in  good  condition  for  the  next  crop. 

Much  may  be  learned  by  observing  the  practices  of  neighbor- 
ing farmers  and  by  noticing  that  flowering  plants  grow  much 
better  after  being  transplanted..  Note,  also,  the  difference  in 
vigor  of  crops  on  new  land  and  on  old  land. 

47.  Rotation  Practically  Enlarges  the  Farm. — Differ- 
ent plants  have  different  feeding  habits.  Some  plants 
feed  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  exhaust  the 
food  there,  while  others  send  their  roots  down  and  feed 
in  an  entirely  different  part  of  the  soil.  This  practically 
enlarges  the  farm  on  which  crops  of  different  feeding 
habits  are  rotated.  The  roots  of  clover  often  go  down 
several  feet  in  sandy  soil.  Wheat  possesses  an  extensive 
root  system,  while  barley  is  shallow  rooted.  By  deep 
feeding  not  only  is  the  surface  soil  relieved  but  plant  food 
is  also  brought  up  and  left  near  the  top  for  surface 
feeders  to  use  later.  Furthermore,  some  crops  mature 
early  while  others  feed  during  the  entire  season.  Early 
peas,  for  example,  are  grown  in  July,  while  corn  con- 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS  59 

tinues  to  grow  till  October.  The  farmer  can  take  ad- 
vantage of  these  conditions  in  the  rotation  of  his  crops. 
Winter  wheat  planted  in  October  will  grow  through  the 
late  fall  and  early  in  spring.  After  it  is  cut  in  mid- 
summer there  is,  in  southern  latitudes,  still  time  for  a 
short-time  crop,  and  thus  the  land  is  used  throughout 
the  season.  Oats  and  barley  mature  about  three 
months  after  sowing. 

48.  Rotation  Regulates  the  Food  Supply  in  the  Soil. — 
When  one  crop  is  raised  in  the  same  soil  for  a  number 
of  years  the  land  tends  to  wear  out.  This  one  crop  de- 
pletes the  soil  of  certain  kinds  of  plant  food  so  that 
after  a  while  the  crop  will  not  grow  well.  But  the  same 
soil  can  still  supply  sufficient  food  for  a  different  crop. 
This  is  not  because  different  plants  use  different  food 
materials,  for  it  has  been  found  that  all  plants  use 
practically  the  same  kinds  of  foods.  It  is  because 
different  plants  use  different  proportions  of  the  same 
foods.  For  example,  1,000  pounds  of  tobacco  remove 
from  the  soil  45  pounds  of  nitrogen,  while  the  same 
amount  of  Indian  corn  removes  only  about  25  pounds. 
The  tobacco  removes  50  pounds  of  potash,  while  the 
corn  requires  only  10  pounds.  On  the  other  hand, 
1,000  pounds  of  clover  may  actually  add  to  the  soil 
one  half  as  much  nitrogen  as  it  removed  and  take  out 
only  22  pounds  of  potash.  From  this  it  will  be  seen 
that  clover  is  a  good  crop  for  land  deficient  in  nitrogen, 
and  Indian  corn  for  land  from  which  the  supply  of  pot- 
ash has  been  largely  drawn. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  pounds 
(to  the  nearest  whole  Dumber)  of  each  of  the  principal 


60    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

plant  foods  taken  out  by  1,000  pounds  of  the  given 
crop.1     (See  also  Table  I  in  the  Appondix.) 


Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash 

Wheat  (grain  and  straw) 

Oats  (grain  and  straw) 

Indian  corn 

34 
32 
25 
20 
45 

11 
11 

9 
5 

14 
26 
10 

Clover  2 

22    ■ 

Tobacco 

50 

49.  The  Norfolk  System  of  Rotation. — It  has  taken 
many  years  of  observation  and  study  to  determine  what 
crops  should  be  used  in  a  series  for  rotation.  The  first 
system  to  gain  attention  in  America,  and  one  still  much 
used,  consists  of  roots  (turnips),  barley,  clover,  wheat. 
This  is  called  the  Norfolk  System  because  it  originated 
in  Norfolk  County  in  England.  It  is  of  more  importance 
for  having  called  attention  to  crop  rotation  than  it  is 
for  the  actual  alternation  of  crops  involved.  Turnips, 
which  are  deep  feeders,  are  followed  by  barley,  which 
feeds  near  the  surface.  Both  of  these  crops  remove 
nitrogen,  so  clover  (a  deep  feeder)  is  next  grown  in  order 
to  renew  the  supply  of  nitrogen.  The  system  is,  of 
course,  varied  to  suit  local  conditions.  In  the  United 
States  corn  and  potatoes  take  the  place  of  turnips.  When 
stock  is  kept  on  the  farm  the  Norfolk  System  may  be 
changed  to  allow  crops  of  mixed  grass  and  clover  for 


1  It  should  be  understood  that  these  numbers  are  only  approx- 
imate for  the  reason  that  the  proportion  of  straw  or  stalks  to  the 
grain  or  seeds  varies.     They  illustrate  the  point,  however. 

2  As  before  stated,  although  the  clover  contains  a  large  amount  of 
nitrogen,  it  gets  much  of  it  from  the  air, 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS  *      61 

two  or  three  years.  Or,  if  not  much  stock  is  kept,  sugar 
beets,  barley,  clover,  and  wheat  niay  be  the  series. 
Oats  may  be  grown  instead  of  barley,  and  rye  in  place 
of  wheat.  In  certain  states  corn  is  used  in  the  series 
for  one  or  two  years.  In  Ohio,  clover,  potatoes,  and 
winter  wheat  are  sometimes  grown.  In  Massachusetts, 
potatoes  and  corn  are  grown  for  two  years  and  grass 
and  clover  for  three  years.  A  common  rotation  on 
dairy  farms  is  corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover,  and  timothy 
for  two  years.  The  rotations  that  are  employed  in 
various  regions  and  under  various  circumstances  are 
almost  without  number. 

SUMMARY 

Clover  is  one  of  the  most  useful  crops  on  the  farm.  It  be- 
longs to  the  family  of  leguminous  plants,  which  includes  also 
alfalfa,  peas,  beans,  and  vetch. 

Leguminous  plants  all  have  the  power  of  fixing  the  nitrogen 
of  the  air  and  making  it  available  for  plant  food. — These  plants 
are  known  by  a  peculiar  butterfly-shaped  flower,  seeds  in  a  long 
pod,  and  compound  leaves. — They  are  deep  feeders  and  so  loosen 
the  soil. — They  have  many  leaves,  which  furnish  much  forage. 
— They  also  produce  many  seeds,  which  are  a  valuable  food  for 
man  and  beast. 

By  rotation  of  crops  is  meant  the  changing  of  the  crop  from 
year  to  year  on  a  given  piece  of  land. — Rotation  of  crops  is  de- 
sirable for  the  following  reasons: 

I  )i  fferent  crops  are  infested  by  different  insects  and  associated 
with  different  weeds; 

Different  crops  take  different  amounts  of  plant  food; 

Different  crops  send  their  roots  down  to  different  depths; 

Crops  vary  in  their  feeding  time,  some  maturing  earlier  in 
the  season  and  some  later; 


62    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Different  crops  need  different  treatment. 

The  supply  of  humus  can  be  maintained  in  the  soil. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  What  is  a  leguminous  plant? 

2.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  its  leaves,  seeds,   and 
flowers? 

3.  Give  three  reasons  why  legumes  are  useful  to  the  farmer. 

4.  Would  you  plow  under  the  whole  clover  crop  or  only  the 
stubble? 

5.  How  does  the  alfalfa  crop  differ  from  the  timothy? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  rotation  of  crops? 

7.  Give  five  reasons  why  rotation  should  be  practiced. 

8.  Give  one  series  of  crops  for  rotation  not  given  in  the  text 
and  explain  its  advantages. 

9.  What  should  govern  the  farmer  in  deciding  what  crops 
he  will  raise? 

10.  Would  you  follow  a  crop  of  oats  with  a  crop  of  wheat? 
Why? 

11.  Why  is  it  bad  practice  to  raise  tobacco  on  the  same  piece 
of  land  year  after  year? 

12.  What  system  of  rotation  do  the  farmers  in  your  neigh- 
borhood use?    Ask  them,  and  ask  them  why. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PLANT  FOOD  AND  HOW  IT  IS  USED 

50.  The  Factory  of  Nature. — The  plant,  as  it  grows, 
is  manufacturing  products.  It  uses  the  food  material 
which  it  gets  from  the  soil  and  the  air  to  make  starch, 
sugar,  oil,  and  other  products.  The  plant  works  with 
only  a  few  different  elements,  but  by  putting  them  to- 
gether in  different  proportions  it  makes  several  products. 
Just  as  our  mothers  with  flour,  milk,  water,  sugar,  and 
yeast  or  baking  powder  make  many  kinds  of  bread, 
cake,  cookies,  doughnuts,  and  rolls,  so  nature  with  oxy- 
gen, hydrogen,  and  carbon  makes  starch,  sugar,  and  oil. 
Adding  to  these  elements  nitrogen,  sulphur,  and  phos- 
phorus, nature — that  is,  the  plant — makes  another  class 
of  foods  called  proteids. 

51.  Oxygen,  Hydrogen,  and  Carbon. — Three  elements 
which  are  necessary  to  every  plant  product  are  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  carbon. 

Oxygen. — Oxygen  is  a  gas  that  forms  a  part  of  air 
and  water.  It  forms  about  one  fifth  of  the  weight 
of  the  air.  Forty-seven  per  cent  of  the  whole  crust  of 
the  earth  is  made  up  of  oxygen.  Whenever  anything 
l)i  1  ms  you  may  know  that  oxygen  is  present,  for  nothing 
can  burn  without  oxygen.     Plants,  you  know,  can  be 

63 


64    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

burned.  This  is  because  the  plant  is  full  of  carbon 
which  unites  with  the  oxygen  in  the  air. 

Hydrogen. — Hydrogen  is  a  gas  obtained  from  water. 
It  is  the  lightest  gas  known  and  it  burns  with  a  nearly 
colorless,  hot  flame. 

Carbon. — Carbon  exists  commonly  as  charcoal.  The 
black  substance  on  the  end  of  a  burned  match  is  carbon. 
Wood  and  coal  contain  carbon,  and  when  they  are 
burned  the  carbon  escapes  to  the  air  in  the  form  of  gas. 
The  carbon  combines  with  oxygen  and  forms  this  com- 
pound gas  called  carbon  dioxide,  or  carbonic-acid  gas. 
The  breath  from  our  lungs  contains  carbon  dioxide,  as 
you  have  learned  in  your  study  of  physiology.  Man  and 
beast  do  not  use  the  carbon  in  the  air,  but  plants  are 
constantly  taking  it  in.  Carbon  is  very  necessary  for 
their  growth. 

52.  The  Products  of  Plant  Growth. — Some  of  the 
products  which  plants  produce  as  they  grow  are  starch, 
sugar,  oil,  protein,  gums,  and  woody  tissue. 

Starch. — You  are  probably  familiar  with  starch  as 
a  substance  used  in  starching  clothes.  It  is  also  a 
valuable  food  for  man.  Potatoes  are  valuable  chiefly 
for  the  starch  they  contain.  Starch  is  found  in  fruits, 
seeds,  roots,  tubers,  and  leaves.  In  making  starch  the 
plant  combines  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon. 

A  few  drops  of  tincture  of  iodine  may  be  obtained  from  a 
drug  store  or  from  a  physician.  A  drop  put  into  a  little  boiled 
starch  will  turn  it  blue;  this  is  a  test  for  starch.  By  boiling  for 
a  few  moments  small  pieces  of  potato,  flour,  meal,  crushed  seeds, 
pieces  of  beets,  carrots,  etc.,  and  testing,  the  presence  of  starch 
may  be  shown.     Pour  boiling  water  over  the  specimen  in  a 


PLANT  FOOD  AND  HOW  IT  IS  USED  65 

cup ;  wait  until  it  is  cold  before  applying  the  iodine  test.  Any 
part  of  a  plant,  as  leaves,  bark,  or  twigs,  may  be  tested  for 
starch  in  the  same  way. 


Comparative  Yield  of  Starch  from  One  Bushel  of  Potatoes. 

Sugar,  Oil. — Sugar  and  oil  are  made  from  these 
same  three  elements.  Sugar  is  found  in  most  fruits, 
and  especially  in  sugar  cane,  sugar  beets,  and  sugar 
maples.  Oil  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  all  grains, 
and  in  large  quantities  in  nuts  and  many  kinds  of  fruits 
and  seeds.  Olives,  for  example,  contain  a  good  deal  of 
oil. 

Protein, — Protein  is  the  name  given  to  a  group  of 
food  substances  containing  nitrogen*  The  most  im- 
portant substance  in  this  group  is  proteid,  which  is  found 
in  grains  and  fruits.  The  sticky  part  of  wheat  is  proteid. 
It  is  abundant  in  beans,  peas,  and  other  leguminous 
plants.  It  is  valuable  as  food  because  it  is  used  by  the 
body  in  building  up  muscle.  In  making  protein,  the 
plant  uses  (as  we  have  noted  above)  nitrogen  and  a  little 
sulphur  and  phosphorus  in  addition  to  the  three  usual 
elements — oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon. 


66    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Place  a  teaspoonful  of  flour  on  a  piece  of  coarse  muslin  or 
linen  (an  old  handkerchief  is  suitable).  Bring  the  sides  and 
corners  up  together  to  make  a  sort  of  bag.  Dip  it  several  times 
into  a  basin  of  water  and  squeeze  it.  The  part  of  the  flour  that 
comes  through  is  starch;  and  the  sticky  mass  inside  the  cloth 
is  gluten,  a  proteid. 

Wood  Tissue. — What  we  call  woody  tissue  forms  the 
great  bulk  of  the  plant.  It  is  the  trunk  and  limbs  of 
trees.  As  wood  and  lumber  it  is  an  important  product 
of  plant  growth.  The  woody  tissue,  like  starch,  sugar, 
and  oil,  is  made  with  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon. 

53.  How  the  Plant  Digests  its  Food  Elements. — 
The  plant  manufactures  its  products  by  the  action  of 
the  living  cells  which  its  leaves  contain.  In  these  cells 
is  a  green  substance  called  chlorophyll.  This  substance 
and  the  sunlight  on  the  leaves  acting  together  change 
the  food  which  the  plant  has  absorbed.  Carbon  dioxide, 
you  remember,  comes  in  through  the  leaves  (Sec.  4). 
The  water  absorbed  by  the  roots  contains  oxygen,  hy- 
drogen, nitrogen,  and  some  other  foods.  The  water  and 
the  carbon  dioxide  meet  in  the  leaves  and  other  green 
parts  of  the  plant.  There,  in  a  wonderful  way,  they 
are  combined  so  as  to  make  starch  and  the  other  plant 
products. 

54.  Changing  Starch  to  Sugar. — Starch,  as  we  have 
just  learned,  is  made  in  the  leaves.  But  as  a  product  of 
the  potato  plant,  for  example,  it  appears  in  growths  on 
the  root,  called  tubers.  How  is  it  moved  from  one 
place  to  the  other?  Starch  and  the  other  plant  prod- 
ucts cannot  be  moved  bodily  from  one  place  to  an- 
other.    In  a  plant  there  can  be  no  transfer  unless  the 


PLANT  FOOD  AND  HOW  IT  IS  USED  67 


material  moved  is  dissolved,  or  in  solution,  as  we  say. 
Now,  starch  will  not  dissolve  in  water,  and  therefore  if 
the  starch  is  to  be  moved 
it  must  be  changed  to 
something  that  is  solu- 
ble. Much  of  the  starch 
made  in  plants  is  changed 
to  sugar,  which  is  soluble. 
The  sugar  is  then  dis- 
solved in  water  and  car- 
ried down  into  the  roots 
and  tubers  of  plants. 
The  sugar  is  used  by 
plants  in  their  growth 
and  development. 

55.  Changing  Sugar 
to  Starch. —  This  sugar 
which  has  been  carried  in 
solution  is  not  stored  up 
as  sugar,  but  is  changed 
to    starch    again.     The 

greater  part  of  all  vegetable  foods  consists  of  such  stored- 
up  starch. 

This  stored-up  starch  may  again  change  to  sugar  if 
the  plant  needs  it.  .  The  difference  between  a  ripe  and  a 
green  apple  is  chiefly  a  difference  in  the  starch  and  sugar 
which  they  contain.  The  green  apple  makes  trouble  for 
the  boy  because  the  starch  is  not  digestible.  If,  how- 
ever, the  green  apples  are  cooked  and  made  into  pies  or 
sauce,  the  starch  is  made  digestible  and  causes  no  trouble. 
A  change  from  starch  to  sugar  is  indicated  by  the  sweet 


Potato  Plant,  Showing  Potatoes 
ob  Tubers. 


68    AN  INTEODUCTION  TO  AGKICULTURE 


taste  of  sprouting  potatoes  and  roots.     In  ripening  fruit 
also  the  stored-up  starch  is  changing  to  sugar. 

56.  The  Composition  of  Certain  Vegetable  Prod- 
ucts.— The  following  table  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
amount  of  starch  and  sugar,  oils,  and  protein  in  various 
vegetable  products.  Starch  and  sugar  are  combined 
under  the  head  of  carbohydrates : 

Table  Showing  Average  Percentage  of  Digestible 
Carbohydrates,  Fats  or  Oils,  and  Protein.1 


Corn 

Wheat 

Timothy  hay 

Potatoes 

Carrots 

Alfalfa  hay 

Clover  hay  (red). 
Apples 


Protein      Carbohydrates     Fqji°* 


7.14 
10.23 

2.89 
1.36 

.81 

10.58 

7.38 

.7 


66.12 
69.21 
43.72 
16.43 
7.83 
37.33 
38.15 
18. 


4.97 
1.68 
1.43 

.22 
1.38 
1.81 


57.  The  Production  of  Heat. — It  is  interesting  to 
know  that  a  plant,  like  an  animal,  produces  heat  when  it 
is  growing.  Although  the  amount  is  small,  experiments 
have  proved  that  the  temperature  of  sprouting  seeds 
may  be  18°  to  36°  Fahrenheit  higher  than  that  of  the  sur- 
rounding air.  In  the  act  of  flowering,  plants  may  be  as 
much  as  14°  Fahrenheit  warmer  than  the  surrounding  air. 

Into  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  place  a  number  of  seeds  ready 
to  germinate.  After  twelve  hours  cork  the  bottle  tightly,  and 
through  the  cork  run  a  thermometer  after  taking  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  room.     Several  hours  later  read  the  thermometer. 

1  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  22,  revised  edition,  except  the  figures 
for  apples.     By  courtesy  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 


PLANT  FOOD  AND  HOW  IT  IS  USED  69 


58.  The  Production  of  Seeds. — A  study  of  plant  life 
seems  to  show  that  so  far  as  the  plant  is  concerned,  the 
object  of  its  existence  is  to  produce  seed.  This,  then,  is 
another  important  use  the  plant  makes 
of  its  food  and  appears  to  be  the  most 
exhausting  effort  the  plant  makes. 
When  the  seed  is  produced,  the  plant 
stops  its  growth  for  the  season,  and  in 
many  cases  dies.  Some  plants  produce 
seed  and  die  in  one  year.  These  we 
call  annuals.  Others  store  up  nourish- 
ment for  one  year,  use  it  all  the  second 
year  in  producing  seeds,  and  then  die. 
Such  plants  are  biennials.  Clovers  and 
some  other  plants,  if  cut  before  they 
bear  flowers,  make  an  extra  rapid 
growth  to  complete  their  work  of  pro- 
ducing seed.  The  farmer  can  profit 
by  this  and  get  several  crops  of  clover  or  alfalfa  in  one 
season. 

Seeds  form  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  man  and  ani- 
mals. It  is,  therefore,  greatly  to  our  advantage  that 
plants  seem  to  give  all  their  energies  to  the  production 
of  seeds. 


Experiment  Show- 
ing Heat  Given 
Off  by  Germi- 
nating Seeds. 


SUMMARY 


The  plant  combines  certain  elements  to  manufacture  prod- 
ucts.— Important  elements  in  the  growth  of  plants  are  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  carbon. — Oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  gases  which 
in  combination  form  water. — Carbon  is  an  element  that  exists 
commonly  as  a  black  mass  in  charcoal. 


70    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

The  plant,  like  the  animal,  uses  its  food  to  build  up  tissue, 
to  make  chemical  changes,  and  to  produce  heat. — The  plant 
makes  starch,  sugar,  oils,  protein,  and  woody  tissue. — Starch, 
sugar,  oil,  and  protein  are  valuable  foods  for  man. — Proteid  is 
an  important  food  substance  found  in  grains,  fruits,  and  legumes. 

The  food  elements  are  manufactured  into  products  in  the 
leaves  and  other  green  parts  of  the  plant. — Insoluble  starch 
may  be  changed  to  soluble  sugar  and  carried  to  some  part  of 
the  plant  where  it  is  again  changed  to  starch  and  stored  up 
for  future  use. 

Vigorous  growing  plants  produce  some  heat,  but  not  so 
much  as  animals. 

The  production  of  seeds  is  the  most  important  thing  the 
plant  does. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  What  is  the  difference  between  starch  and  protein? 

2.  Name  ten  foods  that  are  eaten  chiefly  for  the  starch  they 
contain. 

3.  Why  is  it  better  to  store  up  food  as  starch  than  as  sugar? 

4.  Why  does  the  plant  sometimes  change  its  starch  to 
sugar? 

5.  Why  are  ripe  apples  safer  to  eat  than  green  ones? 

6.  Would  you  cut  clover  before  it  blossoms?    Why? 

7.  Water  is  ^  hydrogen  and  f  oxygen  by  weight.  How 
much  oxygen  is  there  in  45  pounds  of  water? 

8.  How  many  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  fats  or  oils,  and 
protein  are  there  in  20  bushels  of  corn?     In  25  bushels  of  oats?  * 

9.  How  many  pounds  of  apples  would  you  have  to  eat  to 
get  as  much  proteid  as  a  pound  of  potatoes  yields? 

10.  Which  of  the  foods  listed  in  the  table  on  page  68  has  the 
greatest  amount  of  food  stuff  in  a  pound? 

11.  Name  the  products  of  the  following  plants:  Sorghum, 
carrot,  flax,  hemp,  oak  trees,  hickory. 

1  A  bushel  of  oats  weighs  32  pounds.     A  bushel  of  corn  56  pounds. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

PLANT   ENEMIES:   WEEDS,    INSECTS,    AND   PLANT 
DISEASES 

59.  What  a  Weed  Is. — A  weed  is  a  plant  growing 
where  it  is  not  wanted.  It  is  a  plant  so  well  adapted  to 
the  place  where  it  grows  that  it  crowds  out  more  desir- 
able plants.  A  plant  that  is  an  annoying  weed  to  some 
farmers  may  elsewhere  be  cultivated  in  flower  gardens. 
For  example,  the  sweet  clover  is  a  weed  in  the  Central 
States,  but  it  has  been  cultivated  in  New  England  gar- 
dens for  its  attractive  blossom. 

60.  Why  Weeds  are  Enemies. — Weeds  are  enemies 
because  they  prevent  the  growth  of  plants  that  are 
wanted.  If  a  man  wants  to  raise  lettuce  and  finds  half 
of  his  crop  purslane,  although  he  might  eat  the  purslane 
for  greens,  yet  he  will  be  disappointed.  Weeds  generally 
grow  fast  and  vigorously.  They  take  from  the  soil 
moisture  needed  by  the  crops,  which  dry  up  without  it. 
Weeds  take  also  the  plant  food  and  so  rob  the  crop. 
The  amount  of  available  plant  food  in  the  soil  at  any  one 
time  is  limited,  and  a  few  days  of  rank  weed  growth  may 
use  up  a  season's  supply  and  retard  plant  growth  until 
more  is  made  available.  Weeds  frequently  have  large 
leaves,  and  they  cover  the  ground  and  keep  from  the 

71 


72    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

growing  crop  the  sunlight  which  it  needs.  They  also 
furnish  lodging  and  food  for  insects  that  may  later  attack 
the  crop.  Sometimes  they  poison  animals  in  a  pasture. 
At  all  times  they  are  unsightly  and  a  disgrace  to  the 
owner.  "I  weni  by  the  field  of  the  slothful,  and  by  the 
vineyard  of  the  man  void  of  understanding;  and  lo!  it 
was  all  grown  over  with  thorns,  and  nettles  had  cov- 
ered the  face  thereof."  It  is  important  to  note  that 
certain  weeds  follow  certain  crops  and  certain  methods 
of  farming. 

61.  Classes  of  Weeds. — Weeds,  like  other  plants,  are 
divided  into  classes — annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials, 
according  to  their  habit  of  producing  seeds  and  length  of 
life.  The  chickweed  is  an  example  of  the  first  class. 
It  comes  up  from  the  seed  in  the  spring,  blossoms  in 
midsummer,  produces  seeds,  and  dies  the  same  year. 
Biennials  may  be  represented  by  the  bull  thistle.  This 
plant  comes  up  from  the  seed,  and  the  first  year  does 
not  blossom  but  stores  up  nourishment.  The  second 
year  it  uses  the  nourishment  to  produce  seed  and  then 
dies.  Beets,  carrots,  turnips,  and  such  plants  as  pro- 
duce a  fleshy  root  the  first  year  are  biennials.  An  ex- 
ample of  the  third  class  is  the  Canada  thistle.  It  comes 
up  from  the  seed,  produces  seed  after  one  or  more  years, 
and  continues  to  live  perhaps  for  many  years.  Peren- 
nial herbs  die  down  to  the  ground  in  the  fall  and  grow 
again  from  the  roots  in  the  spring;  shrubs  and  trees  live 
on  year  after  year. 

62.  Annuals,  and  How  to  Kill  Them. — Annual  weeds 
follow  tilled  crops.  Among  the  annual  weeds  may  be 
mentioned  the  pigweed,  shepherd's  purse,  purslane,  rag- 


PLANT    ENEMIES 


73 


weed,  prickly  lettuce, 
and  smart  weed.  In 
fact,  most  of  the  com- 
mon garden  weeds  are 
annuals.  These  arc 
the  easiest  to  kill.  If 
they  are  prevented 
from  going  to  seed, 
and  if  the  young 
plants  are  hoed  up 
and  covered,  that  is 
the  end  of  them.  The 
seeds  of  some  weeds 
are  deeply  'buried, 
and  as  the  land  is 
cultivated  these  are 
brought  near  the  sur- 
face and  soon  sprout. 
Constant  watchful- 
ness is  therefore  nec- 
essary  even  after  the 
first  growth  of  weeds 
has  been  cleared  away. 
It  is  often  well  to  let 
the  ground  lie  a  week 
or  two  after  plowing 
before  it  is  seeded,  so 
that  the  weeds  may 
have  an  opportunity 
to  sprout.  They  will 
then  be  killed  by  the 


Tin    Common  Prickly  Lettuce 
(Annual). 


Small-leaved  Burdock  (Biennial). 

74 


PLANT    ENEMIES  75 

cultivation  incident  to  planting.  This  gives  the  crop 
a  chance  to  start  before  a  new  lot  of  weeds  springs 
up.  Many  annuals,  and  other  weeds  as  well,  may  be 
killed  by  burning  over  a  piece  of  ground  before  plow- 
ing. It  is  necessary  only  to  prevent  seeding  to  exter- 
minate annuals. 

63.  Biennials,  and  How  to  Kill  Them. — Common  bi- 
ennials are  burdock,  wild  parsnip,  teasel,  poison  hem- 
lock, and  bull  thistle.  It  is  more  difficult  to  get  rid  of 
biennials,  for  even  though  they  are  mowed  off,  the 
roots  are  left  in  the  ground  and  they  may  send  up  a 
stem  to  produce  seeds  the  second  year.  On  small 
patches,  as  lawns,  this  class  of  weeds  may  be  killed  by 
cutting  off  the  plant  just  below  the  ground  with  a  long- 
handled  chisel  called  a  spud.  Any  cultivation  that 
prevents  such  weeds  from  going  to  seed  will  help  to  free 
the  land  from  them. 

-  64.  Perennials,  and  How  to  Kill  Them. — The  great 
majority  of  weeds  are  perennials.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  Canada  thistle,  plantain,  dandelion,  oxeye 
daisy,  mallow,  yellow  dock,  and  toad  flax  or  snap- 
dragon. These  are  the  most  difficult  of  all  weeds  to  de- 
stroy, because  both  the  tops  and  the  roots  must  be  killed. 
As  with  the  other  two  classes,  seed  production  should  be 
prevented  by  persistent  mowing.  The  root  or  under- 
ground stem  should  be  plowed  up  or  dug  up  and  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  of  summer  and  the  frost  of  winter  or 
raked  off  and  burned.  The  roots  may  sometimes  be 
starved  by  preventing  any  green  part  to  live  above 
ground.  For  example,  dandelions  in  a  lawn  may  be 
killed  by  cutting  off  the  plant  an  inch  or  more  below  the 


Toad  Flax  (Perennial). 
76 


PLANT    ENEMIES  77 

surface  of  the  ground  and  pulling  out  the  top.  This 
can  be  done  very  rapidly  with  a  spud. 

On  small  areas  weeds  may  be  smothered  by  covering 
with  straw  so  that  they  will  get  no  air  or  light ;  on  large 
fields  a  sod-forming  grass  may  be  grown  for  the  same 
purpose.  Salt,  or  strong  acid,  is  sometimes  used  on 
small  areas  to  kill  the  roots  of  weeds. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said,  the  three  methods  of 
killing  perennials  are  prevention  of  seeding,  thorough 
and  continued  cultivation,  and  smothering  by  crops. 
Recent  experiments  show  that  wild  mustard  and  some 
other  weeds  may  be  killed  or  checked  by  spraying  with 
certain  chemicals,  as  a  ten-per-cent  solution  of  iron  sul- 
phate. This  does  not  injure  cereals,  corn,  grass,  or 
clover,  but  retards  the  growth  of  weeds  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  crop  is  increased  twenty  per  cent.1  There  can 
be  no  effective  weed  control  unless  fence  corners,  road- 
sides, and  waste  places  are  kept  clean. 

Let  each  pupil  bring  into  class  every  noxious  weed  he  can 
name. 

65.  Description  of  an  Insect. — An  insect  is  a  small 
animal  that  has  six  legs  and  its  skeleton  on  the  outside. 
The  body  is  divided  into  ringlike  parts  attached  to 
each  other.  These  are  called  segments  and  are  in  three 
groups — the  head,,  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen.  The 
head  has  attached  to  it  the  jaws,  feelers,  and  eyes. 
The  thorax  has  three  rings,  to  which  are  attached  the 
six  legs  and  the  two  or  four  wings,  if  the  insect  has  any. 


1  Science,  November  22,  1907,  p.  694. 


78    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

The  abdomen  is  segmented  and  has  a  row  of  pores  or 
breathing  holes  along  each  side. 

66.  Life  History  of  Insects. — Insects  hatch  from  eggs 
as  do  many  other  animals.  But  instead  of  growing 
regularly,  they  pass  through  a  change,  or  metamor- 
phosis, as  it  is  called,  the  young  being  somewhat  different 
from  the  adult.  For  example,  the  young  of  the  butter- 
fly and  moth  is  a  caterpillar  having  a  wormlike  body 
and  many  legs.     This  caterpillar,  which  is  called  a  larva, 


Typical.  Insect,     a,  head  with  eyes  and  mouth  parts;  b,  thorax,  with 
legs  and  wings;  c,  abdomen,  showing  segments. 


grows  rapidly  and  then  passes  into  the  pupa  stage.  In 
this  stage  it  is  inclosed  in  a  rather  hard  shell  often 
covered  with  a  silk  case  called  a  cocoon.  It  is  quiet, 
and  eats  nothing.  It  may  occupy  this  stage  for  days, 
weeks,  or  even  over  winter.  After  a  time  it  comes  out 
as  an  adult  insect.  It  is  in  the  larval  stage  that  many 
insects  do  their  harm  by  eating  vegetation. 

Some  insects,  as  the  squash  bug,  the  grasshopper, 
and  the  cricket,  do  not  pass  through  a  complete  change^ 


PLANT    ENEMIES 


79 


but  have,  when  hatched,  the  same  form  as  the  adult 
except  that  their  wings  are  wanting.  Such  insects 
molt,  or  shed  their  skin,  several  times;  and  after  each 
molt  their  wings  are  larger  than  before. 


Apple  Tree  Tent-catekpii.lah.     a,  eggs;  6,  tent  in  which  larvae  live; 
c,  larva  feeding;  d,  cocoons;  e,  adult  male  moth. 


Insects  lay  great  numbers  of  eggs,  often  several 
hundred.  The  queen  bee  lays  several  thousand  in  a  day; 
and  it  is  said  that  white  ants  lay  eighty  thousand  a  day 
for  two  years. 

67.  Classification  of  Insects. — In  agricultural  dis- 
cussion, insects  are  sometimes  divided  into  two  groups, 
cutting  and  sucking  insects.    Cutting  insects  bite  off 


80    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


parts  of  the  leaf  or  plant  and  devour  them.  Such  in- 
sects are  sometimes  so  numerous  that  they  strip  a  bush 
or  tree  of  its  leaves  in  a  few  hours.  Sucking  insects 
insert  their  long,  slender  mouth  parts  into  the  plant  and 
suck  the  juices  from  it.  Some  insects  belong  to  one 
group  in  one  stage  of  their  existence,  and  to  the  other 
group  in  another  stage. 

68.  Some  Common  Cutting  Insects. — Examples  of  the 
cutting  insects  are  the  larvse  of  the  codling  moth,  the 
canker  worm,  the  cabbage  worm,  and  the  potato  beetle. 
The  codling  moth  is  one  of  the  most  injurious  of  in- 
sects.    The  adult  is  a  small  gray  moth  about  one  half 

inch  long.  It  lays  its 
eggs  on  the  leaves  or 
on  the  apples  just  as 
the  petals  fall,  or  later, 
if  it  is  the  second  gen- 
eration. The  larvse 
hatch  and  feed  their 
way  into  the  apple, 
which  may  soon  fall  if 
it  harbors  the  first  gen- 
eration. Afterwards 
the  larvse  work  their 
way  out  of  the  apple 
and  crawl  into  a  crev- 
ice of  the  bark  or 
other  similar  place, 
from  which  they 
emerge  as  adult  insects.  If  it  is  the  last  brood  of  the  sea- 
son, the  pupa  remains  over  winter.     The  larvae  pupate  in 


Codling  Moth,  a,  the  entrance  hole ;  6, 
the  burrow;  c,  the  larva;  d,  the  pupa; 
e,  moth  at  rest;  /,  moth  with  wings 
spread;  g,  head  of  larva;  h,  cocoon 
containing  pupa. 


PLANT    ENEMIES 


81 


some  crack  or  hole,  or  under  some  scale  of  the  bark.  If 
the  tree  is  too  smooth  they  drop  to  the  ground  and  go  into 
it  through  some  crack,  or  remain  under  rubbish  or  clods. 
The  larva  is  the  white  worm  so  familiar  in  apples. 

The  canker  worm  is  the  larva  of  a  small  ash- 
colored  moth,  the  female  of  which  is  wingless.  The 
larva  is  sometimes  called  the  measuring  worm  be- 
cause of  its  method  of  traveling  by  looping  its  body. 
The  eggs  are  laid 
in  patches  on  the 
bark  of  a  tree. 
The  larva?  will  strip 
the  foliage  of  the 
tree  with  great  ra- 
pidity. After  the 
worms  have  ma- 
tured they  swing 
themselves  down  by 
a  silken  thread,  bur- 
row in  the  ground, 
and  there  go  into 
the  pupa  state.  The 
last  brood  stays  in 
the  ground  over 
winter. 

The  cabbage  worm  is  the  larva  of  the  well-known 
white  cabbage  butterfly.  It  is  greenish  in  color,  taper- 
ing at  each  end,  and  covered  with  fine  white  down  or 
hair.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  In 
ten  days  they  hatch,  and  the  larvae  feed  about  three 
weeks.    The   pupa  stage   is   only   about   two   weeks. 


Cankkk  Worm,  a,  adult  male;  6,  adult  fe- 
male moth;  c,  cluster  of  eggs;  d,  larva;  r, 
larva  swinging  down  from  a  tree  to  bur- 
row into  the  ground. 


82    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

There  are  generally  two  broods  in  a  season,  one  in  May 
and  one  in  July. 


^  c 

Cabbage  Worm,    a,  larva;  b,  chrysalis;  c,  butterfly. 

The  potato  beetle  at  one  time  caused  an  immense 
amount  of  damage.     The  adult  is  about  one  half  inch 


<?  e  / 

Potato  Beetle,     a,  eggs  on  underside  of  leaf;  b,  larva  that  eats  the 
leaves;  c,  pupa;  d,  perfect  insect;  e,  wing  cover;  /,  leg. 

long  with  ten  stripes  along  the  back.     In  the  Central 
States  there  are  three  broods,  the  last  one  remaining  in 


PLANT    ENEMIES  83 

the  ground  over  winter.  The  other  two  feed  about 
twenty  days  each,  and  remain  quiet  in  the  ground 
about  ten  or  twelve  days.  The  larvae  will  double  in 
size  in  a  few  hours. 

69.  Some  Common  Sucking  Insects. — Examples  of 
sucking  insects  are  plant  lice,  chinch  bugs,  the  Hessian 
fly,  and  the  grape  phylloxera.  Plant  lice  is  the  name 
given  to  a  group  of  small  insects  that  have  long  beaks 
with  which  they  pierce  the  plant  and  suck  the  juices. 
Some  are  protected  by  a  thin  covering,  from  which  they 
get  the  name  of  scale  insects.  A  noted  example  of  these 
is  the  San  Jose  scale  insect,  one  of  the  most  destructive 
to  orchards.  This  insect  is  so  dangerous  that  in  some 
states  it  is  illegal  to  sell  trees  infested  with  it. 

The  chinch  bug  is  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long, 
but  it  is  said  to  cause  more  damage  than  any  other 
known  species  of  insect.    It  is  brown 
in  color,  with  white  fore  wings,  each 
having  a  dark  spot  near  the  middle. 
These  insects  are  the  greatest  enemies 
of  the  wheat  crop.     They  sometimes 
attack  corn  also,  u  fairly  blackening 
the  stalks  with  their  bodies."     Al- 
most as  harmful  to  the  wheat  crop 
as  the  chinch  bug  is  the  Hessian  fly. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  leaves  of 
the  wheat.    The  larvae  attack  both         chinch  buq. 
the  root  and  the  stalk. 

The  grape  phylloxera  is  a  very  destructive  insect 
that  stings  the  roots  and  sucks  the  juice  of  grape  vines. 
Another  harmful  insect  is  the  plum  curculio,  which  lays 


84    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

its  eggs  in  the  green  fruit.  From  these  eggs  the  young 
hatch  and  feed  upon  the  plums,  which  soon  drop  off. 
There  are  many  other  insects  injurious  to  vegetation, 
for  an  account  of  which  the  student  is  referred  to  the 
books  and  pamphlets  listed  at  the  end  of  the  book. 

Let  each  pupil  bring  into  class  all  the  above-named  insects 
he  can  catch. 

70.  Insect  Control. — Biting  insects  are  exterminated 
by  spraying  the  foliage  with  poisonous  mixtures  so  that 
the  insects  take  the  poison  in  their  food.  Sucking  in- 
sects are  destroyed  by  actually  being  hit  by  the  spray. 
Good  standard  insecticides  for  biting  insects  are  Paris 
green  and  London  purple.  For  sucking  insects,  the 
most  common  remedy  is  a  kerosene  emulsion.  This 
closes  the  breathing  pores  so  that  the  insect  is  smothered. 
Formulas  for  the  various  insecticides  will  be  found  in  the 
Appendix.  These  liquids  are  applied  with  a  spray  pump 
made  for  the  purpose.  For  the  codling  moth  spraying 
is  sometimes  done  as  many  as  five  times  with  a  com- 
bination of  Bordeaux  mixture  and  Paris  green.  The 
first  spraying  is  done  as  soon  as  the  petals  have  fallen, 
the  second  three  or  four  weeks  later,  and  the  third  about 
nine  or  ten  weeks  after  the  petals  have  fallen;  the  fourth 
and  fifth  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks.  It  is  often 
necessary  to  hand  pick  or  dig  out  insects. 

Insect  enemies  may  be  greatly  diminished  in  number 
by  carefully  collecting  and  burning  all  rubbish,  such  as 
fallen  limbs  of  trees,  twigs,  and  stubble.  Eggs  and  the 
wintering  insects  may  be  hidden  there,  and  the  burning 
will  destroy  them.    Neatness  then  brings  its  own  reward. 


((UNIVERSITY  J 

\^*UfoknJS^LANT    ENEMIES  85 

Prepare  some  kerosene  emulsion  and  Bordeaux  mixture 
according  to  the  formuke  in  the  Appendix  and  try  them  where 
needed. 

71.  Nature  of  Plant  Diseases. — The  third  great 
enemy  of  the  farmer's  crop  is  disease.  Plant  diseases 
are  caused  by  bacteria,  molds  and  fungi,  organisms  that 
belong  to  a  group  of  low  vegetable  forms  which,  not 
having  chlorophyll  in  their  cells,  are  obliged  to  get  their 
food  from  some  higher  plant. 

These  low  forms  grow  mostly  from  spores,  which 
take  the  place  of  the  seeds  of  higher  plants;  sometimes 
they  propagate  by  dividing  into  two  or  more  parts. 
These  spores  are  very  small  and  innumerable,  and  are 
light  enough  to  be  carried  by  the  wind.  Familiar  evi- 
dences of  these  lower  plants  are  corn  smut  and  wheat 
rust.  When  broken,  the  corn  smut,  as  is  well  known, 
sends  out  a  great  cloud  of  brown  dust;  each  particle  of 
this  dust  is  a  spore,  which  may  produce  other  corn  smut. 
Because  of  the  vast  number  of  spores,  these  organisms 
are  multiplied  or  propagated  with  great  rapidity. 

The  leaves  of  gooseberries  in  the  spring  may  often 
be  seen  to  have  light  yellow  spots  on  them.  These 
spots  are  "rust"  and  are  the  result  of  these  spores. 
The  white  coating  on  the  surface  of  lilac  and  pea  leaves 
is  a  familiar  example  of  mildew. 

72.  Some  Common  Diseases  and  Their  Treatment. — 
Some  of  the  most  familiar  plant  diseases  are  the  fire 
blight,  oat  smut,  potato  scab,  potato  blight,  peach  curl, 
black  knot,  and  fruit  mold. 

The  fire  blight  gives  to  the  end  of  apple  and  pear 
tree  twigs  the  well-known  blackened  appearance.    It  is 


86    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

caused  by  bacteria  growing  in  the  inner  layer  of  the  bark. 
The  twigs  should  be  cut  off  and  burned. 

The  oat  smut  is  a  fungus  which  does  much  damage 
to  the  oat  crop  every  year.     It  is  said  that  ten  to  forty 


'           IP '         *  M 

\  IF  i 

jit  \f 

'  1 

j 

-Five  Heads  of  Clean  Oats,     b — Five  Heads  of  Smutty  Oats. 
Note  the  black  smut  in  the  grains  and  the  small  size. 


PLANT    ENEMIES  87 

per  cent  of  the  crop  is  annually  ruined  by  this  disease. 
In  the  spring  when  the  seed  oats  are  planted  minute 
spores  of  the  oat  smut  are  sown  with  them.  The  smut 
spores  begin  to  grow  about  the  same  time  that  the  oat 
They  form  very  small  threads — smaller  than 
a  cobweb— down  in  the  ground.  You  have  noticed 
such  threads  when  mold  grows  on  bread.  The  little 
threads  enter  the  young  oat  plants,  the  sap  of  which 
they  use  for  their  food  and  grow  rapidly.  The  plant  is 
weakened  by  furnishing  food  for  all  these  threads  that 
run  through  its  roots,  stem  and  leaves.  When  it  is 
ready  to  blossom  and  form  oat  seeds,  the  fungus  is  ready 
to  produce  black  spores.  The  ends  of  the  threads  grow 
out  on  the  head  of  grain  and  give  rise  to  immense  num- 
bers of  minute,  black  spores.  The  oat  plant  has  not 
had  a  fair  chance  and  it  will  produce  fewT  oat  seeds  as  a 
result.  If  the  farmer  cuts  the  oat  plants  and  carries 
them  to  his  barn,  there  will  be  millions  of  these  spores 
among  the  grain.  Some  of  them  will  be  mixed  with  the 
good  oats  and  when  sowed  the  next  spring  will  produce 
the  same  or  worse  results.  If,  however,  the  oats  that  are 
to  be  planted  are  soaked  for  twenty  minutes  in  a  weak 
Solution  of  formaldehyde,  made  by  pouring  one  pint  of 
formaldehyde  into  a  barrel  of  water,  the  smut  spores 
will  be  killed  and  the  oats  will  not  be  injured.  They  will 
be  just  as  good  \'<>v  planting  but  must  not  be  fed  to  stock 
after  being  BOaked  in  the  formaldehyde. 

The  mildew  that  attacks  grape  vines  consists  of  fine 
threads  similar  to  those  just  described.  It  can  be 
largely  prevented  by  spraying  the  vines  with  the  Bor- 
deaux mixture. 


88    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGKICULTUKE 

Potato  scab,  familiar  to  all  farmers,  is  caused  by  a 
fungus  that  grows  from  spores  on  the  seed  potato  or  in 
the  ground.  The  remedy  is  to  soak  the  seed  potato  in 
the  formaldehyde  solution.  If  the  ground  has  produced 
potatoes  for  some  time  and  the  spores  are  in  the  ground, 
this  remedy  will  not  work  and  the  crop  should  be  grown 
elsewhere  for  a  period  of  years.  Potato  blight  affects  the 
leaves  and  travels  from  the  leaves  and  stems  down  into 
the  tubers,  causing  them  to  rot.  It  may  be  controlled 
by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Prepare  the  formaldehyde  mixture  and  treat  some  scabby 
potatoes  and  smutty  oats.  Plant  some  small  patches  with  the 
treated  seeds  and  others  with  the  untreated  seeds,  and  see 
whether  there  is  a  difference  in  the  product. 

Mixtures  for  destroying  fungi  are  called  fungicides. 
Directions  for  preparing  and  using  fungicides  may  be 
found  in  the  Appendix. 

SUMMARY 

A  weed  is  any  plant  that  grows  where  it  is  not  wanted. — 
Weeds  are  enemies  because  they  absorb  moisture  and  take  the 
plant  food  needed  by  the  crops. — Weeds,  like  all  other  plants, 
are  divided  into  annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials. — Annuals 
and  biennials  may  be  destroyed  by  preventing  their  going  to 
seed. — Perennials  must  be  dug  up  and  destroyed  from  the  roots. 

Many  kinds  of  insects  do  serious  harm  to  plants. — It  is  in 
the  caterpillar  or  larval  stage  that  insects  generally  destroy 
vegetation. — Insects  are  classed  as  cutting  and  sucking  insects. 
— The  cutting  insect  eats  off  leaves;  the  sucking  insect  takes 
the  juice  of  plants. — Insects  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying 
with  poisonous  mixtures  or  various  other  liquids. 

Plants  are  subject  to  diseases  in  the  same  way  that  animals 
are. — Plant  diseases  are  called  mildews,  scabs,  molds,  and  smuts. 


PLANT    ENEMIES  89 

— These  diseases  are  controlled  by  cutting  off  and  burning  the 
diseased  parts  and  by  spraying  with  various  solutions. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  Why  is  it  more  difficult  to  exterminate  a  perennial  weed 
than  an  annual? 

2.  Name  some  of  the  worst  weeds.     Are  they  annual,  bi- 
ennial, or  perennial? 

3.  Why  are  Canada  thistle  and  dandelion  hard  to  keep  in 
check? 

4.  Name  a  half  dozen  injurious  insects. 

5.  Which  is  it  better  to  kill,  a  moth  or  a  grub?     Why? 

6.  How  does  a  blight  injure  a  plant? 

7.  Why  should  the  dead  vegetation  around  a  wheat  or  oat 
field  be  burned? 

8.  Why  will  not  Paris  green  kill  sucking  insects? 

9.  Is  it  better  to  let  the  windfalls  from  apple  trees  lie  on  the 
ground  or  should  they  be  fed  to  some  animal?     Why? 

10.  Which  is  the  better  farming,  to  prevent  weeds  or  to  kill 
weeds? 

11.  Is  it  good  practice  to  allow  weeds  to  cover  the  ground 
after  garden  crops  are  gathered?     Why? 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  FARMER'S  FRIENDS:    BIRDS,  TOADS,  INSECTS 

73.  Birds  and  Their  Food. — While  a  large  part  of 
the  farmer's  work  consists  in  fighting  insects,  weeds, 
and  other  injurious  things,  he  has  some  valuable  friends 
who  work  with  and  for  him.  Probably  the  most  valu- 
able are  the  birds.  They  aid  the  farmer  by  eating  in- 
sects and  seeds  of  weeds.  To  some  extent  they  eat  in- 
jurious animals,  such  as  mice  and  gophers. 

Young  birds  grow  rapidly  and  require  a  great  amount 
of  food.  Many  of  them  are  fed  mostly  on  insects.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  a  pair  of  sparrows  will  carry 
more  than  three  thousand  caterpillars  to  their  nest  in 
a  week.  A  young  robin  kept  in  captivity  was  fed  sixty 
earthworms  a  day,  and  an  observer  claims  that  a  pair  of 
young  European  jays  were  fed  a  half  million  caterpillars 
in  a  single  season.  Professor  F.  H.  King,  in  observa- 
tions made  in  Jefferson  County,  Wisconsin,  and  in 
Ithaca,  New  York,  counted  on  an  average  thirty-three 
birds  per  mile  in  Wisconsin  and  fifty-seven  per  mile  in 
New  York.  It  is  probable,  as  he  says,  that  this  number 
represents  not  more  than  half  of  those  occupying  each 
square  mile.  Is  it  not  evident,  then,  what  a  great  and 
constant  help  the  birds  are  to  the  farmers  ? 

90 


THE    PARMER'S    FRIENDS  91 

74.  Useful  Birds. — Birds  that  help  the  farmer  may 
be  divided  into  three  groups:  First,  those  that  live 
chiefly,  or  prefer  to  live,  upon  animal  food,  such  as  in- 
sects in  their  various  stages.  Among  these  birds  may 
be  mentioned  the  robin,  thrushes,  bluebird,  kinglet, 
scarlet  tanager,  bobolink,  kingbird,  pewees,  black-billed 
cuckoo,  and  woodpeckers.  Second,  those  that  eat  both 
animal  and  vegetable 
food.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned 
the  catbird,  brown 
thrush,  white-bellied 
nuthatch,  chipping 
sparrow,  marsh  rob- 
in, and  purple  grackle. 
Third,  those  that  pre- 
fer a  vegetable  diet  of 
seeds.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned 
the  finches,  thistle 
bird,  and  indigo  bird. 
It  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood that  hard  and 
fast  lines  can  be  drawn  among  the  birds  in  regard  to 

their  food.     Birds  have  their  preferences,  but  the  season 

of  the  year  and  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  a  given  food 

determine  to  a  large  extent  the  kind  of  food  eaten. 

The  robin  is  a  diligent  seeker  for  caterpillars,  cut- 
worms, white  grubs,  and  earthworms  in  lawns,  fields,  and 
meadows.  In  early  morning  and  late  evening,  this  bird 
may  be  seen  awaiting  its  prey.     All  of  a  sudden  it  darts 


92    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

its  bill  into  the  ground  and  brings  up  a  worm.  The 
robin  eats  caterpillars  also,  and  other  larva4  feeding  upon 
shrubs  and  vines. 

The  thrushes  spend  most  of  their  time  in  thickets 
and    trees,    and    some    observers    have    consequently 


Robin. 

thought  that  they  eat  buds.  An  examination  of  the 
stomachs  of  numbers  of  thrushes,  however,  has  indi- 
cated that  seventy  to  ninety  per  cent  of  their  food  is 
ground-infesting  insects  and  larva?. 

The  bluebird  catches  its  prey  either  on  the  wing  or 
on  the  ground,  thus  taking  a  wide  range  in  its  feeding. 
It  comes  early  in  the  spring,  rears  two  or  three  broods  of 
young,  and  for  their  food  destroys  an  immense  number 
of  insects.  The  bluebird  seems  to  like  cultivated  fields 
and  the  society  of  man,  and  thus  its  activities  are  in  an 
especially  useful  place. 

The  scarlet  tanager  is  a  beautiful  bird  that  inhabits 


THE    FARMER'S    FRIENDS 


93 


the  border  of  woodlands  and,  to  some  extent,  orchards. 
From  the  woodlands  it  makes  excursions  into  the  ad- 
jacent fields  to  capture  insects.  Although  it  eats  cher- 
ries, its  useful  work  fully  offsets  the  damage  it  does. 


Wood  Tmu  sii. 


The  woodpeckers  and  their  habits  are  well  known. 
These  birds  spend  their  time  seeking  the  larv;e  hidden 
in  the  crevices  and  under  the  bark  of  trees.  The  golden- 
winged  woodpecker  gets  its  food  both  from  the  trees  and 
from  the  ground,  its  favorite  food  being  ants.  Most  of 
the  woodpeckers  undoubtedly  are  beneficial,  although 


94    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

sometimes  they  may  do  some  damage  by  eating  useful 
insects. 


Downy  Woodpecker. 


The  catbird,  because  of  its  fondness  for  fruit,  is  not 
to  be  ranked  among  the  most  useful  birds;  but  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  it  does  more  good  than  harm.     Its 


THE    FARMER'S    FRIENDS  95 

haunts  are  the  underbrush  and  brambles,  which  are 
good  hiding  places  for  larvae  and  upon  these  it  lives 
during  much  of  the  year.  During  the  breeding  season 
the  song  of  the  catbird  is  not  to  be  despised,  being  some- 
what similar  to  that  of  certain  of  the  thrushes,  whose 
relative  it  is. 

The  nuthatches  follow  after  the  woodpecker,  and  ex- 
tract the  small  insects  in  crevices  of  the  bark  of  trees. 
They  are  very  lively  and  seem  to  be  constantly  eating, 
so  that  they  make  up  in  diligence  and  appetite  what  they 
lack  in  size. 

The  sparrow,  the  most  common  of  all  our  birds,  is 
generally  considered  a  seedeater,  being  very  fond  of 
weed  seeds  of  all  kinds;  but  with  the  exception  of  the 
English  sparrow,  all  sparrows  feed  mainly  on  insects  in 
the  spring  and  early  summer,  and  the  young  are  fed 
almost  entirely  on  insects.  The  English  sparrow  is  the 
only  real  pest  in  this  family. 

The  finches  have  strong  bills  adapted  for  removing 
the  hard  shell  of  seeds.  They,  together  with  other 
birds  of  their  class,  devour  immense  quantities  of  the 
seeds  of  weeds. 

The  Baltimore  oriole  eats  grapes  in  their  season,  but 
it  also  does  good  by  eating  the  pupa  of  certain  insects 
which  do  much  damage  to  trees.  It  is  probable  that 
the  benefit  is  much  more  than  the  damage. 

The  meadow  lark,  killdeer,  and  plover,  during  their 
stay  in  the  North,  feed  almost  entirely  upon  insects. 
Even  birds  of  prey  do  some  good  by  destroying  some 
small  animals  that  are  injurious  to  plants,  such  as  field 
mice. 


96    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Watch  the  various  birds  and  learn  their  feeding  habits.  It 
is  often  possible  to  get  into  a  position  where  the  feeding  of  the 
young  may  be  noted. 

75.  Attracting  the  Birds. — In  order  that  we  may 
have  more  birds  living  about  our  homes,  to  help  destroy 
insects  and  give  us  pleasure  by  their  songs  and  beauty, 
we  must  provide  them  with  conditions  which  are  favor- 
able to  their  ways  of  life.  Birds  must  find  suitable 
places  for  building  their  nests.  The  planting  of  trees 
and  shrubs  is  the  very  best  way  of  attracting  birds. 
Clumps  of  shrubbery  will  afford  excellent  nesting  places 
for  shy  birds,  while  the  crotches  of  trees  will  be  used  by 


a  I'  c 

Bird  Houses,     a  and  b,  made  from  boxes;  c,  made  from  a  tin  can. 


robins  and  many  others.  The  boys  can  easily  make 
bird  houses  for  wrens,  martins,  bluebirds,  and  chicka- 
dees. These  birds  do  not  care  for  fancy  houses — old 
boards  are  better  than  new  ones  for  building  the  houses. 
Wrens  will  often  occupy  a  tin  can  or  a  small  pail  which 
has  been  fastened  to  a  board  with  the  closed  end  up  and 
a  small  hole  made  in  the  side.  This  opening  should  not 
be  over  an  inch  in  diameter  for  wrens ;  then  the  English 


THE    FARMERS    FRIENDS 


97 


sparrow  cannot  enter  to  trouble  them.  Old  branches 
that  have  knot  holes  of  some  depth  may  be  fastened  on 
posts,  and  will  often  attract  bluebirds  or  chickadees. 
The  barn  swallows  should  be  allowed  to  nest  in  the  barn. 
If  the  barn  door  is  kept  closed  it  is  a  good  plan  to  leave 
open  a  small  window,  or  even  to  make  a  few  holes  so 
that  the  birds  may  come  and  go  freely. 

Materials  may  be  supplied  for  nest  building.  Robins 
and  orioles  often  spend  much  time  searching  for  threads 
and  strings  suitable  for  use.  Narrow  strips  of  cloth  will 
be  used  in  the 
nest  by  them  and 
by  some  other 
birds,  as  thrushes 
and  catbirds.  It 
i-  always  inter- 
esting to  watch 
the  birds  as  they 
come  to  the  shrubs 
to  gather  these 
strings  and  strips 

of     cloth,     to     sec 

how  they  will  pull 

them    free     from 

the  branches  and 

carry  them    in 

their  hills  to  their 

nests.    If  mud  can 

be  supplied  it  will  also  help  the  robins  in   their  nest 

building. 

The  matter  of  food  supply  is  a  more  pressing  <jues- 


BlNOINO   wiiim;   His   Math    BuiLM. 


98    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

tion  with  the  birds  than  with  human  beings,  for  they 
cannot  store  away  food  to  any  great  extent.  During 
the  summer  days  there  are  insects  in  abundance  and 
often  seeds  and  fruits.  As  a  rule  the  birds  prefer  the 
wild  fruits  if  they  can  find  any  near  their  nests.  In  the 
winter  the  birds  that  remain  have  difficulty  in  finding 
food.  Then  it  is  that  a  piece  of  suet  or  other  fat  meat 
fastened  to  a  tree,  or  some  cracked  nuts  placed  in  a 
shallow  box  on  a  tree,  will  serve  to  call  the  chickadee, 
nuthatches,  hairy  woodpecker,  downy  woodpecker, 
brown  creeper,  blue  jay,  and  English  sparrow.  Often 
during  the  breakfast  hour  a  score  of  these  birds  are  seen 
eating  from  the  suet  placed  on  a  tree  near  the  dining- 
room  window.  Many  of  the  number  are  English  spar- 
rows, but  the  other  birds  come  regularly  and  take  their 
turn  also.  It  is  just  as  necessary,  also,  to  supply  coal- 
ashes  or  sand,  which  furnish  mineral  matter  required  by 
seed-eating  birds  to  grind  their  food.  By  feeding  these 
birds,  more  of  them  will  come  in  the  winter,  and  they 
eat  great  numbers  of  insect  eggs  and  pupae  which  have 
been  hidden  in  the  cracks  on  the  bark  of  trees.  This 
makes  a  lessening  of  the  insect  pests  the  following 
summer. 

Water  is  essential  to  bird  life.  Often  our  feathered 
friends  suffer  in  the  summer  time  because  they  cannot 
readily  find  places  to  drink  and  bathe.  It  is  an  easy 
matter  to  place  a  pan  or  shallow  dish  partly  filled  with 
water  on  a  post  out  of  reach  of  cats.  Most  of  you  will 
be  surprised  at  the  number  of  bird  visitors  that  will 
come  every  day  to  seek  a  drinking  fountain. 

If  the  stray  cats  of  the  neighborhood  can  be  disposed 


THE    FARMER'S    FRIENDS  99 

of  this  will  serve  as  a  very  valuable  way  of  increasing 
the  number  of  birds  about  our  homes.  Pet  cats  often 
catch  birds,  even  pet  cats  with  bells  fastened  around 
their  necks  will  catch  and  eat  young  birds.  The  home- 
less cats  eat  large  numbers  of  birds  every  year  and 
should  be  disposed  of.  Children  should  be  taught  to 
care  for  the  birds  and  not  to  molest  them. 

76.  Toads  and  Frogs. — The  toad  can  lay  no  claim  to 
beauty,  but  there  is  no  more  useful  animal  of  its  size. 
One  of  the  most  amusing  pastimes  is  to  catch  rose  bugs 
and  put  them  down  in  front  of  a  toad.  The  bugs  sud- 
denly disappear.  The  toad's  tongue  is  attached  at  the 
front  of  its  mouth.  It  is  covered  with  a  sticky  sub- 
stance, and  can  be  snapped  out  like  a  whiplash.  There 
seems  to  be  no  limit  to  the  number  of  bugs  a  toad  can 
eat,  so  that  toads  exert  a  great  power  for  good  in  ridding 
our  gardens  of  destructive  insects.  The  eggs  of  toads 
are  laid  in  the  water,  in  strings  of  a  jelly-like  substance. 
The  tadpoles  that  are  hatched  from  the  eggs  are  useful 
in  devouring  the  refuse  matter  in  the  pond.  Frogs  per- 
form the  same  service. 

77.  Useful  Insects. — You  might  think  from  the  last 
chapter  that  all  insects  are  enemies  of  the  farmer, 
but  such  is  not  the  case.  There  are  many  insects 
which  help  him  greatly  by  destroying  other  harmful 
insects. 

One  of  the  useful  insects  is  the  ichneumon  fly,  dis- 
tinguished by  having  bristles  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen, 
inetimes  several  inches  long.    These  are  for  the  pur- 
poee  of  j  .lacing  the  eggs  and  serve  also  as  a  drill  for 
piercing  whatever  the  eggs  are  to  be  placed  in.    There 


100    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

are  several  thousand  varieties  of  ichneumon  flies.  They 
lay  their  eggs  in  the  eggs,  larvae,  or  pupse  of  other  in- 
sects, or  in  crevices  where  other  eggs  are  laid.     When 

the  ichneumon  eggs  hatch, 
the  young  proceed  to  feed  on 
their  host  or  their  neighbors, 
as  the  case  may  be. 

The    Chalcis 
flies  are  minute 
insects  that  lay 
their  eggs  in  the 
eggs  of  the  codling  moth  and 
other   insects.     As   many  as 
four  Chalcis  eggs  are  some- 
times deposited  in  one  egg  of 
another  insect,  which  is  thus 
destroyed  when    the    young 
hatch  and  feed  on  it. 
Ladybugs  are  bright-colored  beetles  that  feed  on 
plant  lice,  the  eggs  often  being  laid  in  the  midst  of  a 
cluster  of  the  lice.     The  ladybug  was  recently  in  great 


Ichneumon  Fly  Piercing 
the  Bark  of  a  Tree. 


Caterpillar,  Showing  the  Holes  in  its  Skin  from  which  the  Ich- 
neumon Fly  Parasites  have  Issued. 


demand  to  destroy  the  " green"  bug  in  the  wheat  fields 
of  Kansas.     Lion  and  tiger  beetles,  as  their  names  would 


THE    FARMERS    FRIENDS  101 

indicate,  prey  upon  other  insects,  such  as  caterpillars 
and  earthworms. 

Dragonflies  and  damsel  flies,  with  their  beautiful 
gauzy  wings,  are  familiar  over  stagnant  pools,  where 
they  are  beneficial  in  catching  flies  and  mosquitoes. 
Their  eggs  are  often  laid  under  water.  The  larvae  live 
in  water,  and  even  in  the  pupa  stage  they  feed  on  water 
insects  and  small  tadpoles. 

Watch  the  animals  and  insects  mentioned  and  notice  their 
habits. 

SUMMARY 

Birds  are  among  the  farmer's  most  useful  friends. — If  it 
were  not  for  birds,  insects  would  probably  strip  the  earth  of 
vegetation. — Birds  may  be  divided  into  those  that  live  chiefly 
on  animal  food,  those  that  live  chiefly  on  vegetables,  and  an 
intermediate  group. — Insects  are  the  natural  food  of  many 
birds,  especially  young  birds. — Vegetable  feeders  help  the 
farmer  greatly  by  eating  seeds  of  weeds. — Many  birds  that  eat 
fruit  during  a  small  part  of  the  year  more  than  make  up  for 
such  damage  by  eating  insects  at  other  times. 

Much  may  be  done  to  make  conditions  better  for  the  birds, 
so  that  more  will  come  to  live  with  us.  Bird  houses  are  easily 
made,  and  food  may  be  supplied  in  the  winter  months  to  induce 
more  birds  to  remain  in  the  vicinity. 

Toads  and  frogs  destroy  many  insects  and  should  be  pro- 
tected. 

Many  useful  insects  prey  on  the  harmful  insects  and  so  help 
to  diminish  their  number. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  If  insects  lay  as  many  eggs  as  they  are  said  to,  why  do 
they  not  become  more  numerous? 
8 


102    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

2.  What  are  the  three  groups  of  birds,  according  to  their 
choice  of  food? 

3.  In  what  season  of  the  year  do  birds  destroy  the  greatest 
number  of  insects? 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  toad  and  a  frog? 

5.  Counting  40  birds  to  the  square  mile,  how  many  birds 
are  there  in  your  State? 

6.  Allowing  each  bird  50  insects  a  day  for  the  120  days  of 
summer,  how  many  insects  are  destroyed  during  the  summer? 

7.  Three  golden-winged  woodpeckers  were  found  by  King 
to  have  in  their  stomachs,  respectively,  255,  220,  and  200  ants. 
Supposing  this  to  represent  one  day's  ration,  how  many  ants 
would  these  three  birds  eat  in  four  months? 

8.  During  an  outbreak  of  Rocky  Mountain  locusts  a  marsh 
wren  was  seen  to  carry  30  locusts  to  her  young  in  one  hour.  At 
this  rate,  how  many  would  she  carry  in  7  hours? 

9.  If  there  were  20  broods  being  thus  fed,  to  the  square  mile, 
how  many  insects  would  be  destroyed  in  the  78,000  square  miles 
of  Nebraska's  area? 

10.  Each  locust  in  Problem  9  weighs  15  grains  and  there  are 
7,000  grains  in  a  pound.  If  each  locust  would  consume  its  own 
weight  of  standing  crops  each  day,  how  much  would  be  saved 
by  the  birds,  allowing  $10  per  ton  for  the  crops? 


CHAPTER  X 

PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS  BY  SEEDS 

78.  Seeds. — Already  you  must  have  realized  that 
seeds  are  very  important.  You  have  learned  how  the 
plant  starts  its  growth  from  the  seed,  feeding  at  first  on 
the  nourishment  stored  there  (Sec.  2).  As  the  produc- 
tion of  seed  is  the  object  of  the  plant's  existence  (Sec. 
58),  let  us  see  now  how  the  seeds  are  produced. 

79.  Flowers. — We  may  regard  flowers  as  the  first 
stage  in  the  production  of  seeds.  Many  plants,  of 
course,  are  raised  solely  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers; 
but  if  the  blossoms  are  unpicked  you  know  they  will 
"go  to  seed."  Other  plants  have  flowers  which  we 
hardly  notice,  for  we  are  interested  only  in  the  grains  or 
fruits  that  grow  from  the  blossoms.  For  example,  the 
ear  in  its  early  stage  and  the  tassel  of  the  corn  plant 
are  really  its  blossoms.  The  flowers  of  the  berry 
plants  and  fruit  trees  are  familiar.  The  elm,  the  maple, 
and  other  trees  also  have  flowers,  although  you  may 
never  have  looked  closely  enough  to  see  them  in  the 
spring. 

80.  The  Parts  of  a  Flower. — In  order  to  see  where  ' 
and  how  the  seed  is  produced,  we  must  take  a  flower  to 

103 


104    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

pieces  and  learn  its  parts.  You  will  notice  first  a  sort 
of  cup  where  the  flower  rises  from  the  stem.  This  is  the 
calyx.  It  is  sometimes  slit  into  parts,  like  little  leaves, 
which  are  called  sepals.  The  sepals  of  most  flowers  are 
green.  Inside  this  green  calyx  cup  is  a  row  or  cluster  of 
snowy  white  or  colored  leaves,  or  petals,  forming  the 
corolla.  This  is  generally  the  pretty  part  of  the  flower 
which  attracts  our  attention.  In  the  heart  of  the  flower 
you  will  find  a  cluster  of  slender  threads,  called  stamens. 
At  the  tip  of  each  stamen  is  a  knob,  containing  at  a  cer- 
tain time  of  the  year  fine  powder.  This  fine,  powdery 
substance  is  called  pollen,  and  the  knob  is  the  anther. 
There  is  still  one  more  part  of  the  flower  to  notice — the 
part  for  which  the  other  parts  exist.  At  the  very  center 
of  the  flower  is  the  pistil,  the  seed  organ.  Often  there 
are  several  or  many  pistils.  At  the  top,  the  pistil  is  en- 
larged a  little  to  form  what  is  called  the  stigma.  The 
base  of  the  pistil  is  the  ovary,  and  there  the  seeds  are 
formed.  The  part  connecting  the  ovary  and  the  stigma 
is  called  the  style. 

Some  flower  of  the  rose  family  may  be  taken  to  learn 
these  parts.  To  this  family  belong  the  apple,  pear, 
plum,  cherry,  strawberry,  raspberry,  blackberry,  and 
roses,  so  it  will  be  easy  to  obtain  a  specimen.  Let  us 
take  the  strawberry.  The  calyx  will  be  found  to  have 
five  parts,  and  outside  of  these  are  five  other  leaflike 
parts  called  bracts.  Five  white  petals  next  appear,  and 
inside  of  these  are  the  numerous  stamens,  each  bearing 
at  the  top  its  anther.  In  the  center  of  the  flower  are 
found  the  pistils,  which  are  numerous  and  gathered  in  a 
clump  or  head.     Sometimes  we  find  strawberry  or  other 


PROPAGATION    BY    SEEDS 


105 


blossoms  which  lack  either  pistils  or  stamens;  such 
blossoms  are  said  to  be  imperfect. 

Not  every  blossom  contains  all  these  parts.     Some 
plants  have  no  sepals  or  petals  on  their  blossoms.     Cer- 


& 

_  3 

4 
5 

m 

t  b  jjf  c 

Dkvki.oi'.mkn-i  oi  mi  Pk.au.  <i,  branch  of  the  tree,  showing  flowers; 
b,  wet  ion  of  flower,  ihowing  parts;  1,  ciilyx,  ■htowtag  sepals;  2, 
corolla,  ihowing  petals;  :'•.  iUunens;  4,  stigmas;  5,  styles;  6,  ovary, 
showing  seeds;  c,  ovary  developed  into  the  pear. 


106    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

tain  other  plants  have  stamens  and  pistils  on  some  of 
their  blossoms,  but  not  on  all.  Sometimes  the  stamens 
are  on  one  blossom  of  a  plant  and  the  pistil  is  on  another 
blossom  of  the  same  plant.  Most  flowers  do  not  have 
bracts. 

Examine  flowers  carefully  until  you  can  easily  distinguish 
the  parts. 

8 1.  Pollination. — In  order  that  the  seed  may  be 
formed  in  the  ovary,  it  is  necessary  that  pollen  shall  fall 
or  be  placed  on  the  stigma.  At  the  season  of  the  year 
when  the  pollen  is  ripe,  the  stigma  is  in  just  the  right 
condition  to  receive  it,  that  is,  the  stigma  is  sticky  and 
the  pollen  will  adhere  to  it.  The  grain  of  pollen  on  the 
stigma  sends  a  shoot  down  through  the  style  into  the 
ovary,  where  it  reaches  the  forming  seed  or  ovule,  as  it 
is  called,  and  fertilizes  it,  so  that  it  will  grow  to  a  live 
seed  able  to  sprout  and  produce  a  plant.  As  the  anther 
containing  pollen  and  the  stigma  (the  top  of  the  pistil) 
are  frequently  close  together,  it  looks  like  a  simple  act 
for  the  pollen  to  fall  on  the  stigma.  But  we  have  just 
learned  that  stamens  and  pistils  do  not  always  grow 
together  in  the  same  blossom  or  even  on  the  same 
plant.  How,  then,  do  you  suppose  this  fine,  almost 
invisible,  powder  can  be  carried  from  one  plant  to 
another  ? 

The  breeze  wafts  some  pollen  and  distributes  it  to 
stigmas;  but  there  is  another  and  surer  way.  Bees  and 
other  insects  flying  from  flower  to  flower  are  the  chief 
means  of  pollination,  that  is,  of  transferring  pollen  from 
anther  to  stigma.     When  they  alight  on  a  blossom  they 


PROPAGATION    BY    SEEDS 


107 


A  Bee  Gathering  Honey,  and  Show- 
ing How  the  Pollen  can  Rub 
Off  on  Its  Body  and  Legs. 


may  brush  on  their  body  some  of  the  pollen  and  when 
they  visit  the  next  blossom  this  pollen  may  rub  off  on 
the  stigma.  The  visits  of  insects  are,  therefore,  very 
necessary  to  the  flow- 
ers if  good  seeds  are  to 
be  produced.  To  at- 
tract them  the  flower 
has  several  devices — 
its  bright  color  and 
its  sweet  perfume,  its 
whiteness  and  its  nec- 
tar. The  insects  al- 
ways seek  the  sweet 
substance  which  is  gen- 
erally  found    deep    in 

the  cup  of  the  blossom,  and  in  probing  for  it  they  un- 
awares do  their  special  service  for  the  plant. 

82.  Cross  Pollination  and  Hybrids. — The  pollen  must 
unite  with  the  ovule  in  the  ovary  in  order  that  fertile 
seed  may  be  produced.  This  grain  of  pollen  may  come 
from  the  same  blossom  or  from  that  of  another  plant  of 
the  same  kind.  When  the  pollen  from  one  plant  enters 
the  ovary  of  another  to  produce  seed,  we  have  what  is 
called  cross  pollination.  The  seed  that  results  from 
cross  pollination  may  produce  a  better  plant  than  either 
of  the  original  or  parent  plants.  The  characteristics 
of  the  two  parents  are  united  in  it.  In  this  way  new 
varieties  of  plants  may  be  formed. 

Sometimes  we  combine  the  characters  of  two  kinds  in 
a  new  plant.  Such  a  plant  is  called  a  hybrid.  Two 
varieties  of  apples  may  be  crossed  in  this  way.    In  such 


108    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

cases  pollination  is  not  left  to  the  chance  of  wind  or  bees, 
but  the  crossing  is  done  by  hand.  The  qualities  most 
desired  in  a  plant  can  sometimes  be  obtained  by  select- 
ing carefully  the  two  parents  of  a  seed. 

When  pollination  is  done  by  hand  the  anthers  of  one 
flower  are  removed  with  forceps  or  scissors  before  the 
flower  opens  and  the  flower  inclosed  in  a  paper  bag  tied 
around  the  stem.  When  the  flower  opens  and  the  stigma 
is  ready  to  receive  the  pollen,  this  is  obtained  from  an- 
other plant  and  applied  to  the  stigma  of  the  first  flower 
with  a  small  brush  or  even  with  the  finger.  The  flower 
is  then  covered  again  with  the  paper  bag,  which  may  be 
replaced  with  a  gauze  sack  after  the  fruit  is  set.  Dozens 
and  even  hundreds  of  flowers  may  be  thus  pollinated  in 
an  experiment  and  the  seeds  planted  and  allowed  to 
develop  to  see  whether  they  will  produce  improved 
plants. 

Agricultural  experiment  stations  and  private  in- 
vestigators have  secured  remarkable  results  in  crossing 
plants.  Among  the  most  noted  plant  breeders  may  be 
mentioned  Luther  Burbank,  of  California,  who  has  pro- 
duced some  unusual  fruits  and  plants.  One  of  these  is 
the  Wickson  plum,  produced  by  crossing  the  Burbank 
and  the  Kelsey  plums.  It  combines  the  best  qualities 
of  both  its  parents,  having  the  shape  of  the  Kelsey  and 
being  of  a  delicious  juicy  quality.  A  hybrid  made  by 
crossing  the  apricot  and  the  plum  is  called  a  plumcot  by 
its  originator.  White  blackberries,  seedless  apples,  and 
stoneless  prunes  are  other  of  Mr.  Burbank's  creations. 

83.  Propagation  of  Plants. — The  farmer,  however,  is 
less  directly  concerned  with  these  special  matters  of 


PROPAGATION    BY    SEEDS  109 

pollination  than  with  the  simple  production  of  plants, 
that  is,  propagation.  If  no  one  looked  after  the  plant- 
ing of  seeds  and  the  raising  of  plants  after  the  seeds 
sprouted  many  varieties  would  disappear  entirely. 
Most  plants  die  after  a  few  years;  and  even  those  which, 
like  the  great  trees  of  California,  live  to  be  many 
hundred  years  old,  will  eventually  die.  The  farmer 
makes  it  his  business  to  see  that,  as  the  old  plants 
die,  new  ones  are  raised  to  take  their  place.  The  chief 
work  of  the  farmer,  indeed,  is  the  propagation  of 
plants. 

84.  Quality  of  Seeds. — You  know  that  the  quality  of 
seed  affects  the  kind  of  plant  that  will  result.  The 
farmer  can  get  a  weak  plant  or  a  strong  plant,  few  fruits 
or  a  generous  crop,  according  to  the  qualities  of  the  seed 
he  plants.  There  are  several  factors  which  determine 
whether  the  seed  will  grow  well — its  age,  its  maturity, 
the  vigor  of  the  parent  plant,  and  the  conditions  (moist- 
ure, air,  and  warmth)  of  the  soil  in  which  it  is  planted. 
Some  seeds  will  not  sprout  owing  to  age  or  other  unfavor- 
able condition.  Those  that  will  sprout  are  said  to  be 
viable. 

85.  Age  of  Seeds.  -Melon  seeds  will  grow  when  ten 
years  old.  Onion  seeds  frequently  will  not  sprout  if 
they  are  more  than  a  year  old.  Starchy  seeds,  as  rice 
and  wheat,  seem  to  remain  viable  longer  than  oily  ones, 
as  corn  and  sunflower. 

The  following  table  from  Yilmorin's  "Vegetable 
Garden"  gives  the  average  period  of  viability: 


110    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


Duration  of  Germination  Power 


Beans 

Bean,  kidney 

Beet 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Cucumber. . . 

Lettuce 

Maize 

Melon 

Onion 

Parsley 

Pea 

Squash 

Tomato 

Turnip 


86.  Maturity  of  Seeds. — Another  condition  that 
affects  the  quality  of  seed  is  the  time  when  it  is  taken 
from  the  parent  plant.  If  the  seed  is  ripe,  or  fully 
grown,  we  say  that  it  is  mature.  Some  seeds  will  not 
sprout,  or  germinate,  if  picked  too  soon.  Other  seeds 
will  continue  to  ripen  after  leaving  the  plant,  especially 
if  a  part  of  the  plant  is  gathered  with  them.  And  there 
are  some  seeds,  as  the  tomato,  that  will  germinate  if  the 
fruit  is  but  little  more  than  half  grown. 

It  is  thought  that  if  immature  seeds  were  used  for 
several  generations,  it  would  result  in  reducing  the  vigor 
of  the  plants.  Seeds  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place  after 
being  matured  to  prevent  deterioration. 

87.  Selecting  Seeds. — By  careful  selection  of  seeds 
much  better  crops  may  be  secured  and  plants  may  be 


PROPAGATION    BY    SEEDS  111 


Two  Ears  of  Corn,  Showing  Desirable  Qualities  for  Selection. 


Two    UNDESIRABLE    I 


improved  in  many  ways.  Great  improvement  in  corn, 
wheat,  and  other  grains,  as  well  as  in  many  other  kinds 
of  plants,  has  been  made  and  this  is  largely  the  result  of 
seed  selection.    It  is  not  sufficient  to  select  the  seed 


112    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

after  it  has  been  harvested;  useful  selection  reaches  back 
to  the  growing  crop.  In  brief,  the  selection  of  seed  corn 
is  as  follows :  The  farmer  or  breeder  gets  clearly  in  mind 
his  ideal.  Early  in  the  fall  before  the  time  of  harvesting 
he  goes  through  the  field  and  selects  the  stalks  of  su- 
perior quality.  In  this  selection  he  takes  account  of  the 
general  vigor  of  the  stalks,  width  of  blade,  shank  of  ears, 
neither  too  long  nor  too  short,  ears  at  an  average  height 
from  the  ground,  number  of  ears  on  stalk,  strength  of 
brace  roots,  size  and  regularity  of  the  stalk.  Then  he 
closely  inspects  these  selected  plants  again,  and  chooses 
the  ears  that  most  nearly  meet  the  ideal  he  has  in  mind. 
The  corn  from  these  ears  is  planted,  the  kernels  from  an 
ear  of  one  stalk  in  one  row  and  those  from  an  ear  of 
another  in  another  row,  and  selections  are  again  made 
just  before  the  harvest.  Seed  is  taken  this  time  from 
those  rows  and  plants  that  show  the  best  results  in  con- 
forming to  the  ideal.  After  several  years  of  such  selec- 
tion and  planting  a  certain  type  will  become  fixed. 
Sometimes  the  corn  from  one  ear  is  planted  apart  from 
others  in  a  square  patch  instead  of  in  a  row,  as  there  is 
then  less  danger  of  corn  from  different  types  of  ears 
mixing  by  the  pollen  blowing  across. 

Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  change  even  the  content 
or  composition  of  the  seed  corn.  In  this  case  analysis 
is  made  of  the  kernels  from  selected  ears  to  determine 
the  relative  amounts  of  proteid,  oil,  and  starch,  and 
selections  made  accordingly.  By  this  means  corn  has 
been  made  to  vary  from  2.62  per  cent  to  6.98  per  cent 
in  its  oil  content,  and  from  6.98  per  cent  to  14.13  per 
cent  in  protein.     Of  course  not  all  the  good  qualities 


PROPAGATION    BY    SEEDS  113 

can  be  readily  obtained  in  one  type.  If  earliness  is 
Bought  size  may  be  sacrificed,  and  if  size  is  the  main 
quality  sought  time  of  maturity  may  be  sacrificed.  80 
also,  if  great  size  is  desired  numbers  may  need  to  be 
sacrificed.  Very 'expert  work  is  required  to  produce  the 
proper  combination  of  good  qualities;  and  even  then  the 
results  may  be  disappointing. 

Select  an  ear  of  corn  from  a  stalk  bearing  two  cars,  and  one 
from  a  stalk  bearing  one  car.  Plant  some  kernels  from  each 
some  distance  apart,  and  mark  the  rows  for  identification. 
Note  whether  one  kind  produces  stalks  with  two  cars  each. 

Among  the  small  grains  it  is  well  to  select  those  that 
are  able  to  resist  drought  and  smut,  those  that  are  early, 
plump,  and  will  yield  abundantly.  It  will  be  no  great 
trouble  to  sow  these  in  a  part  of  the  grain  field  for  several 
successive  years,  and  a  better  lot  of  seeds  may  thus  be 
obtained.  The  variety  of  wheat  known  as  bald  wheat 
was  produced  in  this  way  by  a  thoughtful  man  who 
accidentally  discovered  three  heads  of  bald  wheat  in  a 
field  of  bearded  wheat.  This  was  the  famous  Fultz 
wheat,  now  one  of  the  best  varieties  in  either  America  or 
Europe.  England  produces  nearly  twice  as  much  wheat 
to  the  acre  as  the  United  States,  partly  because  of  more 
careful  selection  of  seed. 

The  Burpee  bush  lima  bean  was  developed  from  one 
hill  of  pole  beans  which  had  withstood  a  frost  that  killed 
all  the  rest  of  the  beans  in  the  field.  This  one  hill  pro- 
duce* 1  1  >eans  on  a  dwarf  vine.  These  beans  were  planted, 
and  seeds  were  selected  from  the  smallest  vines  until  the 
variety  was  established. 


114    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


Sugar  Beets.  This  pile  represents  ten  tons  of  sugar  beets  grown  on 
two  fifths  of  an  acre  of  land  at  the  Experiment  Station  Farm  at 
Madison,  Wis. 


Twenty-three  Hundred-pound  Sacks  of  Granulated  Sugar. 
This  is  the  product  of  the  ten  tons  of  beets  in  the  picture  above. 
The  University  received  a'  check  for  $44.32  from  the  Wisconsin 
Sugar  Co.  for  this  shipment.     This  is  at  the  rate  of  $110.80  per  acre. 


PROPAGATION    BY    SEEDS 


115 


By  selection  of  seeds  of  sugar  beets,  the  amount  of 
sugar  contained  has  been  increased  from  about  seven 
per  cent  in  the  original  beets  to  as  high  as  twenty  per 
cent  in  some  types.  The  average  in  the  best  sugar-beet 
countries  is  about  sixteen  per  cent.  In  order  to  make 
the  selection  in  this  case,  a  small  part  of  the  beet  is  cut 
out  and  analyzed  to  determine  the  amount  of  sugar. 
Seeds  are  then  raised  from  the  beets  which  show  the 
most  sugar.  The  small  piece  cut  out  of  the  beet  does  not 
injure  it  for  producing  seed. 


\  Ommnnnn  Bubo  Ti-uk  km  Farmsbs, 

Courtesy  of  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Madison,  Wis. 

88.  Testing   Seeds.     Oarefll]   farmers  generally  test 
seeds  before  planting.     By  taking  a  hundred  seeds  as 


116   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

samples  and  letting  them  sprout  in  a  seed  tester  the 
farmer  can  judge  of  the  viability  of  the  seeds  he  is  about 
to  plant.  If  a  quarter  of  these  sample  seeds  do  not 
sprout,  he  knows  what  may  be  expected  of  the  whole. 
It  is  better  to  find  this  out  before  the  seed  is  sown. 

A  convenient  form  of  tester  is  a  tin  pie  plate  with  a 
flat  cover,  or  two  pie  plates  put  together.  Two  pieces 
of  cotton  flannel,  or  similar  cloth,  are  cut  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  tester.  These  cloths  are  wrung  out  in  warm 
water  and  one  of  them  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
plate.  One  hundred  seeds  are  counted  and  placed  upon 
the  wet  cloth  and  are  covered  by  the  other  cloth,  which 
is  pressed  down.  This  is  then  covered  by  the  other 
plate  and  placed  in  a  warm  place.  Two  or  three  matches 
may  be  placed  on  top  of  the  upper  cloth  to  prevent  mold. 
The  cloths  should  be  kept  wet  and  the  seeds  examined 
from  day  to  day.  The  number  that  sprout  is  the  per- 
centage of  good  seeds;  that  is,  if  sixty  seeds  sprout  in  the 
lot  selected,  we  may  consider  that  sixty  per  cent  of  the 
whole  batch  are  good. 

Test  some  seeds  by  the  method  described  in  Sec.  88.  If  you 
take  50  seeds  instead  of  100,  the  percentage  is  found  by  mul- 
tiplying by  2  the  number  that  sprout.     Why? 

89.  Conditions  Affecting  Germination. — If  the  seeds 
are  to  sprout  and  grow  well,  there  are  several  conditions 
which  must  be  favorable,  such  as  depth  of  planting,  fine 
seed  bed,  moisture,  air  supply,  temperature,  and  nature 
of  seed  case. 

The  size  of  the  seed  determines  to  a  large  extent  the 
depth   of   planting.     Small   seeds   that   produce   weak 


PROPAGATION    BY    SEEDS  117 

plantlets  must  be  left  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Many  of  the  garden  seeds  should  not  be  planted  more 
than  half  an  inch  deep.  Peas  are  sometimes  planted 
several  inches  deep,  so  that  they  will  not  suffer  from 
drought. 

In  order  that  seeds  may  germinate  they  must  be  able 
to  absorb  moisture.  They  will  do  this  better  if  the  soil 
is  compacted  over  them.  The  danger  in  this  is  that  a 
crust  is  thus  formed  which  the  young  plants  must  break 
through.  The  soil  must  not  be  too  wet  or  the  seeds  may 
rot  before  they  sprout.  If  the  soil  is  too  compact  or  too 
wet  the  air  will  be  kept  from  the  seed.  This  will  hinder 
germination,  because  the  seed  must  have  plenty  of  air. 
In  fields  which  are  under  water  soon  after  planting,  the 
seeds  do  not  sprout. 

There  is  a  certain  temperature  which  is  best  for  the 
sprouting  of  plants.  If  the  soil  is  colder  than  this  the 
seeds  will  not  sprout,  or  will  sprout  but  slowly. 

Some  seeds,  as  nuts,  have  so  hard  a  seed  case  that 
something  must  be  done  to  help  release  the  sprouting 
plant  or  it  will  not  germinate.  These  shells  are  often 
hand-cracked  or  allowed  to  break  by  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing before  planting. 

SUMMARY 

All  plants  have  flowers. — The  most  important  parts  of  the 
flower,  as  regards  plant  reproduction,  are  the  ovary  and  the 
pollen. — Pollen  mast  fall  on  the  stigma  and  penetrate  through 
the  ovary  to  the  seed  in  order  to  make  possible  the  growth  of 
the  seed. — The  sprouting  of  the  seed  depends  on  its  age  and 
maturity,  vigor  of  the  parent  plant,  and  the  condition  of  the 
soil. 

9 


118   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Seeds  should  be  carefully  selected  and  tested. — They  should 
be  selected  early,  from  the  growing  plant,  not  after  harvesting. 
— Different  seeds  should  be  planted  at  different  depths,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  and  kind. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  Why  are  plants  propagated? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  seed  selection? 

3.  Why  is  selection  necessary? 

4.  What  is  the  use  of  the  pollen? 

5.  How  may  bright  colors  of  the  flower  or  strong  odors  be 
useful  to  the  flower? 

6.  What  are  the  conditions  that  affect  germination? 

7.  The  annual  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  is  about  five 
hundred  million  bushels.  If  this  could  be  increased  2  per 
cent  by  seed  selection,  what  would  the  addition  be  worth  at 
80  cents  per  bushel? 

8.  How  many  agricultural  experiment  stations  would  the 
increase  support,  at  half  a  million  dollars  a  year  for  each  station? 

9.  If  grass  seed  costs  10  cents  a  pound  and  is  20  per  cent 
weed  seed,  what  is  the  real  cost  of  the  grass  seed?  Would  it  be 
cheaper  to  buy  a  clean  seed  at  12  cents? 

10.  If  one  day  extra  were  spent  by  every  farmer  each  year 
for  five  years  in  selecting  and  caring  for  seed  corn,  and  the  yield 
thereby  increased  100  bushels,  would  it  pay? 

11.  It  costs  about  $30  to  grow  an  acre  of  sugar  beets.  What 
would  be  the  profit  per  acre  of  beets  grown  under  conditions 
similar  to  those  in  the  illustrations  on  page  114? 


CHAPTER  XI 

PROPAGATION  BY  CUTTINGS  AND   OTHER  MEANS 

90.  Other  Methods  of  Propagation. — In  propagating 
by  seeds  we  produce  new  plants  by  putting  into  the 
ground  parts  of  the  parent  plant  specially  ordained  by 
nature  for  this  purpose,  without  injury  to  the  parent. 
Another  method  of  propagation  is  by  cutting  off  a  part 
of  the  parent  plant  and  letting  that  grow  separately. 
These  removed  parts  are  spoken  of  as  cuttings,  and  the 
process  is  known  as  propagation  by  means  of  cuttings. 
In  other  cases  a  part  of  the  plant  may  take  root  and 
grow  into  a  new  plant  without  being  entirely  separated 
from  the  parent  plant.  This  is  done  by  bending  down 
a  branch  and  covering  it  with  soil;  it  is  called  layering. 
In  still  other  cases,  plants  may  be  propagated  or  estab- 
lished plants  entirely  changed  in  many  of  their  char- 
acteristics by  grafting  and  budding. 

91.  Growth  from  Buds. — In  these  other  methods  of 
propagating  plants  the  development  of  the  new  plant 
comes  from  buds  instead  of  seeds.  Every  live  stem  or 
branch  has  buds  along  its  sidei  and  one,  at  least,  at  the 
end.  When  the  leaves  fall  the  bud  at  the  base  of  each 
leaf  remains,  and  the  next  spring  it  opens  into  new  leaves. 

With  many  kinds  of  plants,  if  a  piece  of  the  stem  is 
119 


120    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

planted  in  soil,  roots  will  grow  from  the  buds  and  a  new 
plant  will  be  formed.  Some  plants,  as  the  strawberry, 
send  out  from  their  main  stems  runners  which  end  in  a 
strong  bud.  These  buds  take  root  and  thus  the  original 
plant  makes  many  new  ones.  One  parent  may  form 
thirty  or  forty  young  plants  in  the  course  of  a  season. 

92.  Cuttings. — To  propagate  a  plant  by  cuttings,  we 
remove  a  part  of  the  stem  that  has  at  least  one  good  bud. 
This  piece  is  put  in  water  or  moist  earth.  After  its  roots 
are  well  started,  it  may  be  carefully  removed  to  the 
place  where  we  want  the  plant  to  grow. 

Many  plants  are  propagated  by  cuttings.  A  few,  as 
the  begonia,  may  be  propagated  from  a  leaf  rooting 
either  in  water  or  in  damp  sand.  But  plants  are  more 
frequently  developed  from  thrifty  shoots.  This  is  the 
common  method  with  geranium,  heliotrope,  verbena, 
nasturtium  and  others.  The  shoots  or  cuttings  are 
divided  so  that  there  are  two  or  more  joints  or  nodes  to 
each  cutting,  which  is  then  buried  in  moist  sand  and 
kept  warm  by  artificial  heat  if  necessary.  If  there  are 
leaves  on  the  shoots  they  should  be  trimmed  or  removed 
to  reduce  the  evaporating  surface.  When  the  roots  are 
an  inch  or  so  long,  the  cuttings  may  be  transplanted  into 
small  pots,  and  from  there  into  larger  ones  as  the  roots 
fill  the  pots.  Hard-wood  cuttings,  such  as  currant, 
gooseberry,  grape,  and  flowering  shrubs,  are  generally 
made  in  the  fall  and  packed  in  green  sawdust  or  damp 
sand.  They  may  be  started  in  the  house  by  February 
or  March  or  lie  until  spring  and  be  planted  in  well- 
prepared  soil.  Each  cutting  should  have  two  or  three 
nodes,  and  when  planted  one  node  should  be  above 


PROPAGATION    BY    LAYERING       121 

ground.  They  are  generally  put  into  the  ground  in  a 
slanting  position  and  the  soil  firmly  pressed  about  them. 
Potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  and  sugar  cane  are  nearly 
always  propagated  from  cuttings.  A  potato 
is  a  swollen  underground  stem  and  when  it 
is  cut  in  pieces  to  plant  we  really  use  a 
piece  of  a  stem  or  cutting. 

93.  Layering. — 
In  some  plants 
buds  may  be  made 
to  root  without  be- 
ing cut  from  the 
plant.  A  slender 
branch  or  stem  is 
bent  down  then 
covered  with  soil. 
From  the  buds  in  this  part  of  the  stem,  roots  will  grow. 
When  they  are  well  established  the  stem  is  cut  off  below 
the  new  roots  and  we  have  a  new  plant. 

Try  the  experiment  of  layering  such  bushes  as  gooseberry, 
raspberry,  blackberry,  and  currant,  and  also  grape  vines. 

94.  Grafting.— Grafting  consists  in  setting  into  a 
tree  a  little  twig  from  another  tree,  so  that  it  becomes 
part  of  the  new  tree.  The  tree  on  which  the  grafting  is 
done  is  called  the  stock,  and  the  twig  set  into  it  is  a 
scion.  Grafting  is  done  to  secure  a  different  kind  of 
fruit  on  a  tree,  to  preserve  and  multiply  special  varieties, 
to  hasten  flowering  or  fruiting  of  seedlings,  to  replace 
lost  branches,  or  to  change  the  size  or  shape  of  a  tree. 
All  the  fruit  trees  in  America  are  grown  either  from  buds 


122   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

or  grafts  as  they  do  not  come  true  from  seed.  An 
apple  tree  bearing  poor  apples  by  successful  grafting 
may  be  made  to  bear  a  good  variety.  Healthy  twigs 
from  a  tree  bearing  the  desired  fruit  are  made  to  grow 
into  and  become  a  part  of  the  poor  apple  tree. 

In  the  case  of  apple  trees,  for  example,  the  scions  are 
cut  from  a  desirable  tree  in  the  fall  and  kept  in  a  dry, 


a 


s 


\ 


SPrOCtor 

Grafting,     a,  splice  graft;  b,  tongue  graft,  parts  separate;  c,  tongue 
graft,  parts  united;  d,  waxed  paper  applied. 


cool  place  over  winter.  In  the  spring  they  are  set  into 
the  stock  where  desired.  A  small  branch,  perhaps  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  or  larger  in  diameter,  is  sawed  off 
and  the  stub  split  with  a  knife.  The  scions  are  whittled 
wedge-shaped  and  slipped  into  the  cleft  in  the  stock. 


PROPAGATION    BY    GRAFTING        123 

In  this  way  stock  and  scion  are  spliced.  Just  under  the 
outer  bark  is  a  thin,  soft  layer  called  the  cambium.  It  is 
the  living  and  growing  part.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have 
the  cambium  layer  of  the  scion  come  in  contact  with 


Cleft  Grafting. 


a,  splitting  the  stock;  b,  scion  prepared  for  inser- 
tion; c,  scion  inserted. 


the  same  layer  of  the  stock.  The  freshly  cut  parts  are 
then  covered  with  grafting  wax  to  keep  out  air  and 
moisture.  Generally  two  scions  are  inserted  into  one 
cleft  and  after  they  are  well  started  one  of  them  may  be 
cut  away. 

Root  grafting,  as  well  as  stem  grafting  just  described, 
is  a  common  practice. 

Get  some  scions  from  a  good  apple  tree  and  practice  grafting. 
Make  some  grafting  wax  from  the  following  formula:  Melt 
one  part  bee!  tallow,  two  parts  beeswax,  four  parts  common 
roflin,  all  by  weight.  Pour  into  water,  and  when  it  is  cool 
enough  work  with  the  hands  as  with  molasses  candy.  The  hands 
should  be  greased  with  lard  or  vaseline.  Make  up  into  rolls 
and  cover  with  paraffined  paper  or  lay  on  a  piece  of  glass.     When 


124   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

wanted,  it  may  be  placed  in  warm  water  to  soften.  For  use  in 
waxing  cloth  the  beeswax  may  be  omitted  or  one  half  more 
tallow  used. 

95.  The  Necessity  for  Grafting. — It  is  necessary  to 
propagate  fruit  trees  and  some  other  plants  by  budding 
and  grafting  rather  than  by  seeds.  The  trees  have  not 
been  raised  from  the  seed  enough  generations  to  come 
"  true."  For  example,  if  all  the  seeds  of  a  Baldwin 
apple  tree  could  be  planted  and  come  to  mature  trees, 
it  is  possible  that  one  or  more  of  the  trees  might  yield 
Baldwin  apples,  but  the  great  majority  would  produce 
fruit  like  their  wild  ancestor,  or  at  least  very  unlike  the 
Baldwin  from  which  they  came.  This  is  also  true  be- 
cause trees  have  their  blossoms  fertilized  by  insects 
from  other  varieties  of  trees  and  this  would  tend  to  pro- 
duce mixed  seeds.  A  far  surer  way,  therefore,  to  get 
what  is  wanted  is  to  graft  from  a  good  Baldwin  apple 
tree.  The  trees  which  nurserymen  sell  are  raised  from 
seeds.  When  the  one-  or  two-year-old  seedling  is  about 
th.3  size  of  a  lead  pencil  it  is  dug  up  and  cut  off  near  the 
root  and  a  scion  from  the  desired  tree  grafted  into  the 
root  part  of  the  seedling.  The  root  may  be  divided  so 
that  three  or  four  stocks  may  be  made  from  a  single 
root.  In  some  cases  dozens  of  scions  are  grafted  into  a 
grown  tree  and  when  they  are  firmly  established  the 
other  parts  of  the  tree  are  cut  away  so  that  the  entire 
tree  is  changed. 

Grafting  is  generally  done  in  the  spring  just  before 
growth  starts.  The  scions  are  cut  in  the  fall  and  kept 
in  a  cool  cellar  so  that  they  will  not  start  growing  too 
early.    It  would  not  do  to  have  the  scions  start  to  grow 


PROPAGATION    BY    BUDDING 


125 


before  the  branch  into  which  they  are  inserted  is  ready 
to  provide  sap  for  them. 

Root  grafting  is  generally  done  in  winter  and  the 
plants  stored  as  directed  for  the  scions. 

96.  Budding. — The  process  of  budding  consists  in 
inserting  through  the  bark  of  a  young  tree  a  single  bud 
cut  from  another  tree.  The 
desired  bud  is  cut  off  with  a 
sharp  knife  and  is  inserted  in 
a  T-shaped  cleft  made  through 
the  bark.  The  wound  is  then 
covered  with  strips  of  cloth 
which  have  been  saturated 
with  melted  grafting  wax. 

In  budding  and  grafting 
it  is  necessary  that  the  stocks 
and  the  trees  from  which  the 
buds  or  scions  are  removed 
be  closely  related.  For  ex- 
ample, an  apple  and  a  crab- 
apple  can  be  grafted  on  each 
other,  but  not  a  peach  on  an  apple.  Ordinarily  graft- 
ing is  preferred  for  certain  kinds  of  fruit  and  budding 
for  certain  other  kinds.  Apples  and  pears  are  grafted. 
Peaches,  plums,  cherries  and  apples  are  budded.  All 
that  part  of  the  tree  above  the  bud  or  graft  par- 
takes of  the  nature  of  the  tree  from  which  the  scion 
was  cut. 


Budding. 


126   AN  INTKODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTUKE 


SUMMARY 

Propagation  may  be  accomplished  by  means  of  cuttings, 
layering,  grafting,  and  budding,  as  well  as  by  seeds. — In  these 
methods  the  new  plants  grow  from  buds  instead  of  from  seeds. — 
Fruit  trees  must  be  propagated  by  grafting  and  budding  because 
they  do  not  "-come  true"  from  seeds. 


QUESTIONS 

i.  What  two  general  methods  of  propagating  plants  are 
there?    Why? 

2.  In  grafting,  why  must  the  cambium  layers  of  the  scion 
and  the  stock  come  in  contact  with  one  another? 

3.  How  are  carnations,  roses,  geraniums,  and  begonias  prop- 
agated? 

4.  Which  is  the  sure  method  of  propagating  fruit  trees,  from 
seeds  or  from  grafts?     Why? 

5-  What  advantage  will  a  young  potato  plant  propagated 
from  a  piece  of  potato  have  over  a  plant  grown  from  the  seed? 

6.  Why  is  the  spring  a  good  time  in  which  to  do  grafting? 

7.  Why  might  a  rainy  time  when  trees  are  in  blossom  prevent 
a  good  crop  of  fruit? 

8.  Why  is  layering  a  more  sure  method  of  propagating  than 
by  a  detached  cutting? 

9.  Why  is  the  spring  the  best  time  for  grafting? 

10.  Why  is  it  best  to  remove  some  of  the  leaves  from  a  cutting 
or  scion? 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  FARM  GARDEN 

97.  The  Importance  of  the  Farm  Garden. — In  the 
farm  garden  can  be  raised,  with  little  outlay,  a  great 
variety  of  good,  healthful  food  for  the  farmer  and  his 
family.  Many  farmers  have  thought  they  were  too  busy 
to  attend  to  a  vegetable  garden.  Many  city  folks  in 
much  poorer  circumstances  than  the  average  farmer 
have  had  a  greater  variety  of  fresh  vegetables  and  fruits 
on  their  tables  than  he.  But  farmers  are  coming  to 
realize  that  it  is  a  good  investment  to  set  a  good  table; 
that  it  is  very  important  for  the  health  of  the  family, 
and  especially  of  the  younger  members,  to  have  a  gener- 
ous and  varied  diet,  and  so  of  late  years  the  garden  has 
come  more  and  more  to  be  considered  an  indispensable 
feature  of  the  farm. 

98.  Position  and  Soil  for  the  Garden. — The  garden 
3hould  be  in  a  warm,  sunny  place,  sloping  to  the  south 
if  possible,  so  that  the  plants  may  grow  rapidly.  Most 
garden  crops  are  better  if  they  make  a  rapid  growth. 
The  best  soil  for  the  garden  is  a  light  sandy  loam  (Sec. 
8).  By  proper  treatment  and  cultivation  almost  any 
soil  can  be  made  suitable.  The  soil  should  be  enriched 
with  well-rotted  manure. 

127 


128   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

The  garden  should  not  be  laid  out  in  square  beds  or 
little  patches  as  was  formerly  the  practice,  unless  it  is  to 
be  taken  care  of  by  a  gardener.  It  should  be  long  and 
narrow,  or  at  least  of  such  shape  that  things  may  be 
planted  in  long  rows  and  easily  cultivated.  With  this 
arrangement  the  garden  can  be  cultivated  by  a  hand 
wheel  cultivator  or  by  a  plow  or  other  implement  drawn 
by  a  horse.  Horse  cultivation  in  the  garden  pays,  and 
if  it  is  to  be  practiced,  the  nearest  rows  should  be 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  inches  apart.  The  spacing  of 
rows  may  vary  from  thirty  inches  for  small  stuff  to 
four  feet  for  melons  and  eight  feet  for  blackberries. 

99.  The  Care  of  the  Garden. — One  difficulty  in  the 
way  of  having  a  good  garden  on  the  farm  is  that  it  must 
be  attended  to  in  the  early  spring  when  the  farmer  is 
straining  every  energy  to  get  the  main  crops  started. 
But  the  garden  is  a  place  where  every  member  of  the 
family  can  help,  and  it  requires  comparatively  little  labor 
and  time.  The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  tilled  in  the 
spring  and  enriched  if  need  be  and  a  good  seed-bed  pre- 
pared, as  we  have  already  learned  (Sec.  23).  Weeds 
must  be  kept  out  by  frequent  use  of  the  hoe  or  cultiva- 
tor, operations  which  will  also  serve  to  keep  air  and 
moisture  in  the  soil  (Sec.  22). 

100.  Desirable  Plants  for  the  Garden. — The  aim  in 
choosing  plants  for  the  garden  should  be  to  have  such  a 
variety  that  there  will  be  a  constant  supply  for  the 
table  from  early  in  summer  until  late  in  the  fall.  It  is 
possible  sometimes  to  plant  early  vegetables  and  later 
ones  in  alternate  rows.  The  early  ones  will  be  out  of 
the  way  before  the  late  ones  need  ground  to  spread  over. 


THE    FARM    GARDEN  129 

In  this  way,  if  there  is  need  to  economize  space,  radishes 
might  alternate  with  parsnips  and  be  out  of  the  way 
before  the  parsnips  are  very  large. 

A  garden  should  be  arranged  so  that  it  may  be  easily 
cultivated.  Everything  should  be  planted  in  rows; 
and  if  the  garden  is  large  and  a  horse  is  to  be  used,  the 
closest  rows  should  be  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six 
inches  apart.  The  distance  between  rows  should  vary 
from  thirty  inches  for  small  stuff  to  four  feet  for  melons 
and  eight  feet  for  blackberries. 

Among  the  earliest  plants  that  a  garden  will  yield 
are  lettuce  and  radishes.  Lettuce  seed  sprouts  very 
easily  and  quickly.  It  may  be  planted  in  rows  twelve 
inches  or  eighteen  inches  apart.  The  seeds  should  be 
covered  half  an  inch  deep  and  the  young  plants  thinned 
out  so  that  they  will  be  one  or  two  inches  apart.  For 
head  lettuce  the  plants  should  not  be  left  nearer  together 
than  about  eight  inches.  Radishes  are  generally  planted 
in  double  rows  six  inches  apart  and  eighteen  inches  from 
the  next  double  row  of  plants. 

Beets  for  early  greens  may  be  planted  in  rows  twelve 
inches  apart,  but  if  the  roots  are  wanted  the  rows  should 
be  eighteen  inches  apart.  The  seeds  should  be  covered 
about  an  inch,  and  the  soil  pressed  firmly  over  them. 
The  plants  should  be  thinned  out  to  three  inches  apart  if 
raised  for  the  tops,  and  six  to  ten  inches  apart  for  early 
and  late  roots. 

Peas  are  planted  several  times  in  a  season.  Small 
varieties  that  do  not  need  bushing  may  be  planted  in 
double  rows,  twelve  inches  apart  and  thirty  inches  from 
the  next  double  row  of  plants.    "Champions"   and 


130   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

other  large  bushed  peas  should  be  in  rows  three  feet 
apart.  Peas  should  be  planted  deep,  even  as  much  as 
four  inches. 

Sweet  corn  should  be  planted  at  intervals  of  two 
weeks  up  to  the  middle  of  July.  In  this  way  it  is  pos- 
sible to  have  table  corn  during  a  period  of  six  weeks  or 
more.  The  rows  may  be  thirty  or  thirty-six  inches 
apart.  Some  persons  plant  in  hills  about  the  same  dis- 
tance apart  each  way,  and  others  in  drills,  the  plants 
eight  or  ten  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

Bush  lima  beans  and  string  beans  are  planted  in 
rows  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  the  plants  should  be 
thinned  so  that  there  are  three  or  more  inches  between 
them.  Pole  beans  are  a  good  crop  where  poles  can  be 
obtained. 

Cucumbers  and  squashes  are  planted  in  hills,  about 
three  or  four  plants  occupying  an  area  five  feet  square. 
The  hill  should  be  dug  out  and  several  forkfuls  of  manure 
should  be  put  in  the  bottom  and  then  covered  with  soil. 
Cucumbers  enough  for  a  small  family  may  be  raised  in 
the  following  way:  Dig  a  hole  deep  enough  to  bury  a 
barrel;  fill  the  barrel  with  horse  manure;  cover  it  about 
six  inches  deep  with  fine  soil,  and  plant.  Allow  a  half 
dozen  or  more  plants  to  grow.  Leave  the  center  of  the 
hill  open  for  the  purpose  of  pouring  in  water.  The 
manure  must  be  kept  saturated  all  summer.  A  circle 
ten  feet  in  diameter  will  be  needed  for  the  vines. 

Tomatoes  are  set  out  in  rows  about  five  feet  apart 
and  should  be  kept  well  cultivated. 

Carrots,  parsnips,  and  celery  may  easily  be  grown  in 
the  garden  if  desired.     Celery  for  early  use  is  planted  in 


THE    FARM    GARDEN  131 

the  house  and  set  out  in  trenches  in  midsummer.  Later 
it  is  banked  up  with  boards  and  earth  to  bleach  it.  For 
a  late  crop,  it  may  be  started  out  of  doors. 

Asparagus  is  a  perennial  and  must  be  set  out  where 
it  will  be  undisturbed.  It  takes  several  years  to  get  a 
good  asparagus  bed,  but  afterwards  the  plant  gives  very 
little  trouble.  Salt  is  used  as  a  fertilizer  for  it.  One 
should  cease  cutting  the  asparagus  when  the  stalks  come 
up  as  small  as  a  lead  pencil. 

Strawberries,  raspberries,  blackberries,  currants,  and 
gooseberries  are  grown  from  plants  which  are  generally 
bought  of  nursery  men.  In  setting  out  a  strawberry 
bed,  more  than  one  kind  of  plant  should  be  chosen  in 
order  to  secure  good  results.  On  some  varieties  of  straw- 
berries the  blossoms  have  no  stamens.  These  plants 
will  not  produce  fruit  unless  strawberry  plants  having 
perfect  blossoms  are  growing  within  a  few  feet  (Sec.  80). 
The  strawberry  plants  are  easily  taken  care  of  and  mul- 
tiply rapidly.  They  bear  fruit  the  next  season  after 
they  are  planted.  The  other  berries  mentioned  are 
hardy  plants  and  are  valuable  additions  to  the  farm 
garden. 

The  best  experiment  on  this  subject  is  to  make  and  care 
for  a  garden.  If  it  is  your  first  attempt,  do  not  try  to  raise 
many  things.  A  half  dozen  things  well  cared  for  are  enough. 
Lettuce,  radishes,  beets,  peas,  corn,  cucumbers,  make  a  good 
li-t  to  start  with. 

SUMMARY 

The  garden  is  important  because  it  furnishes  the  farmer  a 
variety  of  food  at  little  cost. — The  farmer  should  see  that  the 
soil  is  right  and  should  enrich  and  till  it  thoroughly. — The  depth 


132   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

of  planting  the  seeds,  distance  between  the  rows,  and  the  thin- 
ning out  of  the  young  plants  should  have  careful  attention. — 
The  garden  should  be  started  early  and  planted  with  such  crops 
as  will  yield  a  constant  supply  all  through  the  summer. — 
Vegetables  should  be  planted  in  rows,  not  in  patches,  for  ease 
in  cultivation. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

FARM  CROPS 

10 1.  Hay  and  Grass  Crop. — Probably  the  most  im- 
portant crop,  and  certainly  the  one  occupying  the  largest 
area  in  the  United  States,  is  the  hay  and  grass  crop. 
Although  a  very  great  number  and  variety  of  grasses 
are  grown  throughout  the  country,  the  principal  ones 
used  for  hay  are  timothy,  orchard  grass,  red  top,  and 
June  grass.  In  addition  to  these  may  be  mentioned 
alfalfa  and  the  clovers.  No  farm  crop  requires  more 
careful  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  farmer. 

This  judgment  relates  to  the  kind  of  soil  suitable,  the 
kind  of  grass  best  adapted  to  his  use,  the  proper  fer- 
tilizers,  the  best  time  to  harvest  and  the  proper  curing 
and  storing.  Scarcely  any  other  crop  is  so  liable  to  in- 
jury in  harvesting  as  the  hay  crop.  Some  varieties  of 
grass  require  a  heavy,  moist  soil,  while  others- will  do  well 
on  a  soil  that  is  dry.  If  the  hay  is  to  be  fed  to  horses  it 
should  be  coarse  like  timothy  and  many  would  say,  free 
from  red  clover.  Cattle  may  be  fed  finer  hay  and  clover. 
The  kind  of  grass  will  also  determine  the  kind  of  fer- 
tilizer to  be  used.  Land  fertilized  heavily  with  barn- 
yard manure  will  produce  a  </<><><  1  crop  of  timothy,  while, 
if  clover  is  desired  also,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  substitute 

10  133 


134    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

muriate  of  potash  for  some  of  the  barnyard  manure. 
The  time  to  harvest  hay  depends  upon  the  kind  and  the 
use  to  which  it  is  to  be  put.  Timothy  should  be  allowed 
to  mature,  while  some  others  are  cut  before  maturity. 
While  the  temptation  is  to  dry  the  cut  grass  quickly  by 
constant  stirring  and  exposure  to  the  sun,  the  best  author- 
ities now  advocate  slower  drying  with  sufficient  exposure 
to  the  air  to  prevent  fermentation.  Such  hay  will  be 
found  to  be  less  tough,  of  better  flavor,  and  more  nu- 
tritious. Haying  is  now  done  mostly  with  the  aid  of 
machines,  the  four  principal  ones  being  the  mower,  the 
tedder,  the  rake  or  the  loader,  and  the  horse  fork.  The 
tedder  is  not  so  much  used  as  formerly,  at  least  in  some 
sections. 

102.  Alfalfa. — This  forage  crop  has  increased  very 
rapidly  in  popularity  during  the  past  ten  years.  It  is 
a  deep-feeding  plant.  The  roots  often  go  into  the  soil 
ten  or  twenty  feet,  and  sometimes  even  deeper.  It  will 
not  do  well  where  the  subsoil  is  heavy  and  not  well 
drained.  Alfalfa  is  a  good  hay  crop,  but  it  may  be  used 
for  pasture  also.  It  should  be  cut  for  hay  when  it  first 
begins  to  bloom.  Care  is  necessary  in  handling  it  when 
dry  that  the  leaves  are  not  broken  off,  as  they  contain 
the  most  nourishment  for  the  stock.  Three  to  six  cut- 
tings of  alfalfa  may  be  made  in  a  single  season  after  the 
plants  have  become  firmly  established.  It  usually  takes 
about  three  years  for  the  plants  to  develop  their  root 
system  fully.  Then  the  field  may  be  mowed  for  many 
years  if  a  little  fertilizer  containing  calcium,  potassium, 
and  phosphorus  is  added.  The  alfalfa  will  be  able  to  sup- 
ply its  own  nitrogen,  as  explained  in  the  previous  chapter. 


FARM    CROPS  135 

103.  Clovers. — In  Chapter  VI  the  clovers  were  con- 
sidered with  regard  to  their  effect  on  the  soil.  Clovers 
make  excellent  forage  for  stock  and  are  so  used  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.  Clover  hay  requires  careful  dry- 
ing or  it  will  not  keep  well.  Red  clover  is  most  com- 
monly raised  in  the  North.  Timothy  or  other  grass  seed 
is  usually  sown  with  it.  It  is  best  cut  before  many  of 
the  blossoms  turn  brown,  because  the  leaves  will  fall  if 
it  is  too  ripe.  Crimson  clover  seems  to  thrive  better  in 
the  South,  and  may  be  sown  in  the  fall  and  used  as  a 
cover  crop.  If  sown  in  the  spring  it  will  mature  late  in 
the  summer.  Crimson  clover  does  not  seem  to  do  so 
well  in  the  North,  as  the  winters  are  too  cold.  White 
clover  is  used  with  grass  seed  for  pastures. 

104.  Corn. — Corn  is  the  second  crop  in  importance  in 
t!ie  United  States.  It  was  found  in  America  when  the 
first  explorers  came.  It  was  then  known  nowhere  else, 
but  now  it  is  raised  in  all  parts  of  the  world  where  it  will 
grow.  It  requires  much  sunshine  and  warm  weather 
and  is  therefore  grown  in  temperate  and  subtropical 
countries.  It  is  used  for  feeding  stock,  for  human  food, 
and  for  making  starch  and  whisky.  Among  the  types 
of  corn  may  be  mentioned  flint,  dent,  pop  corn,  and 
sweet  corn. 

Corn  requires  a  light,  rich  soil  and  does  not  do  weD 
on  a  heavy  soil.  There  should  be  much  humus  present. 
If  planted  on  sod,  the  ground  may  be  plowed  in  the  fall 
and  thoroughly  cultivated.  This  is  not  good  practice 
in  the  South,  however,  because  of  the  heavy  winter 
rains.  Corn  is  planted  in  hills  three  to  four  feet  apart 
or  in  drills  three  feet  apart.    The  plants  in  drills  should 


136    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

be  eight  or  ten  inches  apart.  The  seeds  should  not  be 
sown  until  the  ground  is  warm  and  danger  of  frost  is 
over. 

Just  before  the  plants  come  up,  the  ground  may  be 
harrowed  with  a  light,  fine-toothed  harrow  to  break  up 
the  crust  so  that  the  plants  may  more  easily  push 
through.  This  also  kills  weeds.  The  ground  is  some- 
times dragged  with  a  light  harrow  even  after  the  plants 
are  up,  care  being  taken  to  hit  as  few  plants  as  possible. 
The  field  should  be  cultivated  as  often  as  necessary  in 
order  that  the  weeds  may  not  get  a  start,  and  to  pre- 
serve a  surface  mulch.  This  should  be  done  as  soon  as 
possible  after  each  rain. 

When  raised  in  large  quantities,  corn  is  now  planted 
and  harvested  by  machines.     Some  seeders  are  so  ar- 


ids 

M&A 

MM 

jPIsSw 

^tisHjBp^ u  ?* 

W/\\]^^m)^^^^^\\i 

Jf^^ 

wM\M/l  ' 

s£s^s*~              :!Es 

llEijlr 

Vertical  Corn  Harvester. 


ranged  that  they  plant  the  corn  in  hills  equally  spaced 
so  that  the  field  may  be  cultivated  both  ways.     More 


FARM    UiOPS 


137 


often  the  corn  is  drilled  in.  The  harvesters  cut  the  corn 
and  bind  it  in  bundles  to  be  picked  up  and  stacked  by 
hand. 

In  many  places  the  corn,  stalks  and  all,  is  cut  up 
and  packed  in  silos  as  green  fodder  to  be  fed  to  the 
cattle  through  the  winter.  Sometimes  the  ears  are 
picked  off  and  only  the  stalks  cut  up  for  the  silo.  A  silo 
is  a  large,  air-tight  pit  or  room  where  the  material  keeps 
moist  and  fresh.  Corn,  or  other  forage  crops,  put  up 
in  this  way  is  called  ensilage. 


M\i-  BBOW1NO    PBODTTCTION   Of  Win  vr   iv  TllK  UNITED  STATES. 


105.  Wheat  and  Other  Grains. — Wheat  ranks  next 
to  coin  in  importance.  <  >ats  and  barley,  though  follow- 
ing cotton  in  the  value  <»f  the  crop,  may  properly  be  <lis- 
cussed  with  wheat.    There  are  several  varieties  of  wheat, 


138   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

as  spring  wheat  and  winter  wheat,  white,  red,  hard,  and 
soft  varieties,  and  bearded  and  bald  varieties.  The 
territory  for  raising  wheat  in  the  United  States  is  shown 
on  the  accompanying  map. 

The  ground  for  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  should  be 
rich  and  mellow,  but  it  need  not  be  as  light  as  for  corn. 
Experiment  and  farmers'  experience  show  that  the  yield 
of  wheat  is  determined  chiefly  by  the  supply  of  nitrogen 


Wheat  Harvesting  Machine.     (Horse  power.) 

in  the  soil  or  in  the  fertilizer  used.  With  barley  nitrogen 
is  also  essential,  but  phosphoric  acid  has  an  equally 
marked  effect.  Wheat  has  a  long  growing  season  and 
therefore  has  an  opportunity  to  get  plenty  of  food. 
These  three  grains  should  all  be  planted  near  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  It  is  their  habit  to  "stool "  or  send  out 
a  bunch  of  roots  from  a  joint  just  below  the  surface,  and 
later  the  part  of  the  root  below  that  point  dies.    If  the 


»  •* 


- 


\J 


A  50-Horss-powbb  Commixed  Steel  Harvesting  Machine  and 
Thresher.  (Steam  power.)  Front  view,  showing  the  wheat 
being  cut. 


(.'omhined  Hauvkstkk  Maciiink.  Side  view.  The  machine  cuts  tin- 
wheat,  thre.-hes  it,  and  delivers  it  ready  sacked  in  one  continuous 
operation. 

139 


140    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


plant  must  force  its  way  up  very  far  before  it  stools,  it 
is  weakened;  hence  the  necessity  for  planting  near  the 
surface. 

Certain  experiments  have  shown  that  it  pays  to  har- 
row these  grains  when  a  few  inches  high,  for  while  a 
few  plants  may  be  destroyed,  the  vigor  of  the  others  is 

increased.  Weeds  are 
thus  kept  down  and 
moisture  is  held  in  the 
soil. 

As  oats  are  likely 
to  shell,  they  are  gen- 
erally cut  before  they 
are  ripe  and  while  the 
straw  is  green.  Bar- 
ley that  is  to  be  used 
in  making  beer  must 
be  fully  ripe  before  it 
is  cut.  Wheat  is  gen- 
erally allowed  to  ripen 
before  cutting.  The 
quality  is  better,  how- 
ever, if  it  is  cut  a  little 
before  it  is  ripe,  when 
the  thumb  nail  will  in- 
dent but  not  crush  the 
kernel. 
There  is  always  a  market  for  wheat  and  it  brings  a 
good  price.  Oats  and  barley  mature  earlier  than  wheat 
and  give  back  to  the  farmer  the  money  invested  in  a 
shorter  time. 


Export  Wheat  in  Bags.  Two  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  bushels  of  wheat 
at  Portland,  Ore.,  in  bags  ready  for 
shipment.  Wheat  is  exported  in  bulk 
(loose)  from  Atlantic,  and  in  bags  from 
Pacific,  ports. 


FARM    GROPS  141 

106.  Field  Peas.— Many  farmers  are  finding  it  to 
their  advantage  to  raise  crops  of  field  peas.  The  pro- 
duction is  large  and  the  crop  a  most  valuable  one.  It 
is  fed  either  as  a  green  crop  or  cured.  As  the  peas  need 
a  support  they  are  generally  sown  with  some  other  crop, 
as  oats.  Peas  do  best  upon  a  heavy  moist  loam  and 
grow  best  in  cool  climates.  They  are  planted  in  drills 
or  broadcast  and  should  be  covered  deeply,  with  a  disk 
harrow.  Several  days  later  the  oats  are  sown  and  cov- 
ered with  a  fine-toothed  drag,  after  which  the  ground 
may  be  rolled. 

107.  Potatoes. — The  United  States  produces  annually 
two  hundred  million  bushels  of  potatoes.  The  yield 
may  possibly  be  doubled  before  long,  because  of  the  in- 
creasing use  of  denatured  alcohol,  in  the  manufacture 
of  which  potatoes,  as  well  as  corn,  are  largely  used. 

Potatoes  are  raised  from  seed  pieces  or  cuttings, 
that  is,  sections  of  a  potato  containing  one  or  more  eyes. 
The  eyes  are  really  buds,  for  the  potato  tuber,  as  it  is 
called,  is  really  an  enlarged  and  specially  developed 
stem,  and  not  a  real  root. 

The  soil  for  potatoes  should  be  rich  and  deep  and 
the  seed  pieces  should  be  planted  deep.  Above  the 
seed  there  must  be  room  for  the  growth  of  the  new  po- 
t, itucs.  Cultivation  of  the  soil  should  be  kept  up  until 
just  before  the  plants  cover  the  ground. 

Potatoes  are  subject  to  scab  (Sec.  72).  This  disease 
may  be  prevented  by  soaking  in  formalin  mixtures  the 
potatoes  to  be  used  as  seed.  Often  the  plants  must  be 
sprayed  to  prevent  blight.  Experiments  on  farms  in 
Wisconsin  in  1905  showed  that  the  average  cost  of  spray- 


142   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

ing  five  times  was  $3.65  per  acre,  and  the  gain  in  value 
of  the  crop  of  potatoes  varied  from  $19  to  $38  per  acre. 
These  experiments  were  tried  on  six-  to  ten-acre  areas. 


'ERY 

mm 


Potato  Spraying  Experiments. 

The  gain  due  to  spraying  was  233  bushels  per  acre. 

From  Ilarwood's  "  The  New  Earth,"  by  courtesy  of  The  Macniillan  Company. 

The  sprayed  plots  were  each  one  acre  and  the  "  check  ". 
plots,  not  sprayed,  were  one  half  acre.  This  made  the 
experiment  extensive  enough  to  be  convincing. 

Raise  potatoes  and  spray  some  with  Bordeaux  mixture  and 
leave  some  unsprayed.     Notice  the  difference  in  results. 

1 08.  Root  Crops. — Under  the  head  of  root  crops — 
that  is,  plants  whose  roots  are  used  for  food — we  may 
mention  beets,  sugar  beets,  carrots,  and  turnips.     Much 


FARM    CROPS  143 

attention  is  now  being  given  to  raising  sugar  beets.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  a  beet-sugar  factory  they  are  es- 
pecially profitable,  because  they  are  raised  on  contract, 
and  the  farmer  knows  beforehand  the  price  at  which  he 
is  to  sell  his  crop.  For  this  crop  the  ground  should  be 
plowed  and  manured  in  the  fall,  and  then  plowed  again 
and  harrowed  in  the  spring.  The  soil  must  be  deep,  so 
that  the  plants  will  not  be  pushed  up  out  of  the  ground 
as  the  roots  grow,  for  the  part  above  ground  is  waste. 
Commercial  fertilizers  containing  much  potash  are  often 
used.  They  should  be  put  on  in  the  fall  so  that  they 
may  be  washed  into  the  lower  part  of  the  soil.     The 

I  is  sown  by  machine  in  rows  eighteen  inches  apart, 
^'hen  the  plants  are  up  so  that  they  show  in  the  row, 
they  are  thinned  with  a  hoe.  A  few  days  later  they  are 
thinned  by  hand  so  that  the  plants  will  be  ten  inches 
apart. 

Carrots  are  grown  largely  for  feeding  to  stock,  al- 
though young  carrots  are  much  used  for  human  food, 
09]  lecially  in  cities.  They  require  an  exceedingly  mellow 
soil,  sandy  preferred,  and  must  be  kept  free  from  weeds. 
They  should  be  planted  rather  early  for  the  early  crop 
and  as  late  as  the  middle  of  June  for  a  late  crop,  after 
the  weeds  have  been  killed  by  harrowing  (Sec.  25). 

Turnips  are  often  sown  broadcast  as  a  " catch"  crop 
— one  sown  between  the  periods  of  other  crops — after 
<uly  peas  or  potatoes.  They  are  used  somewhat  as  a 
table  food,  but  mostly  for  stock. 

109.  Cotton. — Cotton  is  of  so  much  importance  in  the 
Southern  States  that  it  has  won  the  name  King  Cotton. 
Although  a  tropical  plant,  it  thrives  in  the  temperate 


144    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


zone.  For  its  best  production  it  should  have  a  "  climate 
with  six  months'  freedom  from  frost,  a  moderate  well- 
distributed  rainfall  during  the  plant's  growing  season, 
and  abundant  sunshine  and  little  rain  during  its  ma- 
turing period."  The  value  of  the  cotton  plant  resides  in 
the  long  fiber  attached  to  the  seeds. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  the  plant  important  in  the 
United  States — the  short-stapled  upland  variety,  com- 
monly grown  in  the 
Southern  States,  and 
the  long-stapled  va- 
riety called  Sea-Island 
cotton,  grown  on  is- 
lands off  the  coast 
and  in  some  parts  of 
Georgia,  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Florida.  The 
long  -  stapled  variety 
commands  the  better 
price.  Some  progress 
has  been  made  by  seed 
selection,  cultivation, 
and  hybridizing  in 
improving  the  quality 
of  the  short -stapled 
variety.  The  cotton 
plant  requires  a  rich  loam  soil  well  cultivated  and  deep, 
as  the  plant  has .  a  long  tap  root.  As  it  makes  very 
heavy  drains  on  the  soil,  wherever  it  is  raised  there 
should  be  kept  enough  stock  to  consume  the  seeds  and 
return  the  fertilizer  to  the  land.     Peas,  beans,  clover, 


Cotton  Plant,  a,  flowering  branch;  b, 
fruit  (boll)  bursting;  c,  seed  with 
fibers  (lint).     After  Wossidlo. 


FARM    CROPS 


145 


and  peanuts  may  be  raised  as  a  further  benefit  to  the 
land  as  well  as  for  additional  fodder. 


OofftUm  I  a  Dnder* i.  H   i 

Cotton   In  id. 


i  io.  Sugar  Cane.  Sugar  cane  was  originally  a  wild 
plant  that  had  two  to  four  per  cent  of  sugar,  but  it  has 
been  improved  until  now  there  is  as  high  as  sixteen  per 
cent.  In  Louisiana  the  average  amount  of  sugar  in 
the  plant  is  about  eleven  per  cent. 


146    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Sugar  cane  is  raised  from  cuttings  of  the  old  stalks. 
Trenches  are  plowed  and  the  stalks  are  covered.  The 
land  must  be  tilled  and  kept  free  from  weeds.  The  land 
is  planted  every  second  or  third  year  in  the  United  States, 
but  in  tropical  countries  plants  will  spring  up  from 
the  stubble  for  ten  years. 

in.  Rice. — Rice  is  one  of  the  most  important  foods 
of  the  human  race.  Although  several  states  are  adapted 
to  its  culture,  we  import  more  into  the  United  States 
than  we  raise.  There  are  many  varieties  of  rice,  but  for 
practical  purposes  we  may  consider  two  kinds,  upland  and 
lowland.  Upland  rice  is  treated  about  the  same  as  the 
other  small  grains,  but  lowland  rice  is  raised  only  on  land 
that  can  be  flooded.  Most  of  the  rice  grown  in  America 
is  produced  on  the  rich  lowlands  along  streams,  marshes, 
or  level  lands  capable  of  irrigation.  Not  enough  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  raising  of  rice  in  this  country. 

112.  Tobacco. — In  some  parts  of  the  United  States 
the  raising  of  tobacco  is  an  important  industry.  The 
United  States  raises  more  than  twice  as  much  tobacco 
as  any  other  country  in  the  world.  There  are  several 
important  varieties,  which  vary  considerably  in  their 
cultural  requirements. 

Tobacco  plants  require  a  light,  rich  soil  for  their 
growth.  In  the  preparation  of  the  soil  it  is  customary 
to  plow  the  land  in  the  autumn  to  secure  the  benefit  of 
winter  weathering.  In  the  spring  the  fertilizers  are 
added  and  the  land  is  again  plowed,  harrowed,  and  laid 
out  in  ridges  about  three  to  four  feet  apart.  The  seed 
is  sown  early  in  a  specially  prepared  bed,  which  is  usually 
in  a  sheltered  place  where  the  young  plants  can  be  pro- 


FARM    CROPS 


147 


tected.  Sometimes  the  entire  bed  is  covered  with  glass 
or  cheesecloth.  When  the  young  plants  are  three  or 
four  inches  high  they 
are  transplanted  to  the 
ridges  in  the  field,  and 
set  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  inches  apart  on  the 
ridges,  depending  on 
the  variety.  This  was 
formerly  done  entirely 
by  hand,  but  now  trans- 
planting machines  are 
generally  used.  A  ma- 
chine drawn  by  horses 
makes  the  hole  in  the 
ground  and  sets  the 
plant,  which  is  put  in 

position  by  a  man  on  the  machine,  and  then  presses 
the  earth  around  the  roots.  By  the  use  of  such  a  ma- 
chine two  men  can  plant  three  to  six  acres  per  day. 

During  the  growth  of  the  plants  the  soil  is  constantly 
kepi  in  good  tilth  by  the  use  of  cultivators  and  hoes. 
When  the  flower  buds  appear  the  stem  is  broken  off 
;i!  >f  »nt  three  feet  from  the  ground,  to  keep  all  the  strength 
of  the  plants  for  the  growth  of  the  leaves.  This  process 
is  called  "topping."  Following  this  the  young  shoots, 
called  suckers,  which  grow  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  are 
also  broken  off. 

As  the  leaves  ripen  there  are  two  methods  of  harvest- 
ing, In  the  one  case  they  are  broken  from  the  plant  and 
hung  in  a  shed  to  cure.    In  the  other  method  the  entire 


Tobacco  Plant. 


148    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

plant  is  cut  down  and  hung  in  a  shed  when  some  of  the 
leaves  are  just  ripe  and  others  are  still  green.  By  this 
method  the  leaves  do  not  all  cure  alike,  as  they  do  when 


_ 

*• 

^KjHs^^. 

Kmzxp  a^me 

N^o^i 

Bra 

§*& 

dC-' 

Tobacco  Fie/>d. 

all  are  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  plant  before  they  are 
gathered,  but  it  involves  less  work  and  is  in  rather 
general  use. 

The  separate  leaves,  or  the  stalk  and  leaves,  which 
were  hung  in  the  sheds  are  allowed  to  dry  and  at  the  same 
time  undergo  a  change  called  "curing."  The  value  of 
the  leaf  depends  to  a  considerable  extent  on  the  satis- 
factory completion  of  this  "curing."  The  sheds  are 
constructed  so  as  to  regulate  the  supply  of  air  currents, 
moisture,  and  heat.  When  the  leaves  are  cured  they  are 
taken  down  and  if  still  on  the  stalks,  are  stripped  off  and 


FARM    CROPS  149 

placed  in  bundles  to  undergo  a  further  change  known  as 
"fermentation."  The  aroma  from  the  cigar  depends  to 
a  large  extent  on  this  "  fermentation.' ' 

The  tobacco  is  now  ready  to  be  manufactured  into 
cigars,  or  smoking  or  chewing  tobacco.  Most  farmers 
sell  their  tobacco  after  it  has  been  cured  in  the  sheds  and 
before  the  process  of  fermentation  has  been  accomplished. 
The  latter  process  is  then  completed  by  the  tobacco 
buyers,  wrho  have  special  facilities  for  regulating  the 
process  which  the  farmer  does  not  possess. 

SUMMARY 

Forage  crops,  such  as  grasses,  clovers,  and  alfalfa,  are  im- 
portant farm  crops  as  they  are  the  principal  feed  for  stock. 

Corn  is  a  very  valuable  crop  both  for  human  and  for  animal 
food. 

Wheat  is  a  slow  maturing  crop,  while  oats  and  especially 
barley  return  the  money  invested  in  a  short  time. 

Tobacco  needs  an  especially  rich  soil  and  requires  great  care 
in  its  raising  and  curing. 

Most  farm  crops,  except  hay  and  small  grain  crops,  require 
cultivation,  which  keeps  the  soil  in  good  condition  and  free  from 
weeds. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  Is  it  good  farming  to  pick  the  ears  of  corn  and  leave  the 
stalks  to  be  plowed  in?     Why? 

2.  Would  you  burn  the  straw  stack  after  the  grain  is  threshed? 
Why? 

3.  What  would  you  do  with  the  straw? 

4.  It  cost  $113  to  spray  30  acres  of  potatoes  five  times. 
The  average  yield  of  sprayed  potatoes  was  240  bushels  to  the 
acre.  The  average  yield  of  unsprayed  acres  was  1 50  bushels.  At 
40  cents  per  bushel,  what  was  the  gain  for  the  thirty  acres? 

11 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  ORCHARD 

113.  Apples.— -One  of  the  most  important  crops  that 
the  farmer  can  raise  is  apples.  Hardly  any  other  fruit 
is  so  widely  enjoyed  or  so  useful.  An  apple  has  two 
thirds  as  much  nutriment  as  a  potato  of  the  same  weight. 
For  eating  out  of  hand  it  is  always  in  demand.  When 
cooked  in  the  form  of  sauce,  pies,  dumplings,  baked  or 
any  other  form,  it  is  of  superior  excellence.  The  juice, 
when  sweet,  furnishes  a  fine  beverage,  and  when  sour 
and  fermented,  produces  a  vinegar  that  has  no  rival. 
By  a  proper  selection  of  varieties,  a  supply  of  apples  may 
be  had  the  year  round. 

The  apple  tree  is  started  from  the  seed.  As  it  will 
not  come  "true"  (Sec.  94),  at  the  end  of  the  first  or 
second  season  a  scion  of  the  desired  variety  is  grafted  on 
the  seedling  roots  (Sec.  94).  For  this  purpose  the  seed- 
ling is  taken  up,  and  the  scions  and  seedling  should  be 
kept  in  a  cellar  in  moist  sand.  In  the  spring  it  is  planted 
again,  and  after  one  or  two  seasons  of  growth  it  is  ready 
for  the  market. 

A  clay  loam  soil  (Sec.  8)  seems  best  adapted  to  rais- 
ing apple  trees.  Generally,  the  land  should  have  an 
eastern  or  northeastern  slope,  to  lessen  the  danger  from 

150 


THE    ORCHARD 


151 


sun  scald  in  long  summers.  The  soil  should  be  in  good 
condition,  well  tilled,  and  with  a  natural  drainage,  be- 
cause apple  trees  will  not  endure  a  water-logged  soil. 
The  trees  should  be  set  twenty-five  to  forty  feet  apart 
each  way. 

In  general,  the  land  between  the  trees  should  not 
have  crops  grown  on  it,  although  this  will  vary  with 
the  particular  circumstances  sometimes.  Clover  may 
be  grown  and  left  on  the  ground  as  a  mulch.     This  will 


Picking  and  Pa<  kino    Lffles, 


provide  nitrogen  (Sec.  41)  and  protect  the  ground  from 
the  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter.  If  necessary, 
fertilizers  should  be  used,  consisting  of  barnyard  manure 
or  wood  ashes.  Four  hundred  to  six  hundred  pounds  to 
the  acre  of  wood  ashes  is  a  suitable  application. 


152    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Anyone  intending  to  raise  apples  should  first  find  out 
from  his  neighbors  what  varieties  have  proved  successful 
in  his  locality.  It  is  not  well  to  invest  too  heavily  in 
untried  varieties.  The  safest  varieties,  where  they  will 
grow,  are  the  standards,  such  as  the  Baldwin,  Greening, 
Winesap,  Oldenburg,  Red  Astrachan,  and  Northern  Spy. 

Apple  trees  should  be  pruned  to  produce  large  fruit 
and  to  facilitate  picking,  among  other  things.  The  trees 
must  be  sprayed  at  the  proper  time  to  prevent  the  rav- 
ages of  insects  and  diseases.  It  is  a  waste  of  time  and 
money  to  raise  inferior  apples. 

The  picking  must  be  done  by  hand,  and  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  loosen  the  stem  from  the  apple.  The 
apples  should  be  carefully  packed  in  barrels  or  crates, 
and  should  be  slightly  shaken  together  and  compacted,  to 
keep  them  from  rattling  around  and  bruising  each  other. 

114.  Pears. — Pears  are  a  much  esteemed  fruit,  and 
great  quantities  are  sold  in  the  markets  for  immediate 
consumption  and  for  preserving. 

Pears  are  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting  (Chapter 
XI)  upon  the  seedlings.  A  good  soil  is  required.  The 
trees  may  be  set  closer  than  apple  trees.  It  is  best  in 
setting  out  a  pear  orchard  to  use  more  than  one  kind, 
as  the  trees  may  not  bear  well  unless  their  blossoms  are 
fertilized  by  pollen  from  a  different  variety  (Sec.  81). 
Pear  trees  do  not  require  so  much  pruning  as  apple  trees, 
their  habit  being  to  branch  very  much  less.  What  was 
said  about  care  in  picking  and  handling  apples  applies 
with  even  more  force  to  pears.  They  are  often  wrapped 
separately  in  paper  and  packed  in  crates  only  one  or 
two  layers  deep. 


THE    ORCHARD  153 

Pear  trees  are  subject  to  many  ills,  among  them 
blight  and  tree  girdlers.  The  blight  is  caused  by  a 
fungus  which  causes  the  ends  of  the  twigs  to  die.  The 
pear-tree  girdler  lays  her  eggs  in  the  twigs  and  then 
girdles  the  twig,  with  the  result  that  the  young  have 
dead  wood  in  which  to  develop.  For  both  of  these,  the 
dead  twigs  should  be  removed  and  burned.  In  case  of 
blight,  the  branches  should  be  cut  off  a  foot  below  the 
affected  part. 

115.  Peaches. — The  peach  is  another  favorite  fruit 
for  eating  either  raw  or  cooked.  It  stands  among  the 
first  for  canning  purposes.  New  Jersey,  Michigan, 
Georgia,  and  California  are  great  peach-growing  states, 
but  in  many  other  states  the  fruit  grows  well. 

Peaches  are  propagated  by  budding,  which  is  done 
in  the  fall.  The  bud  should  be  set  on  the  north  side, 
so  that  it  will  not  get  too  much  sunlight.  As  soon  as 
the  bud  shows  life  the  next  spring,  the  stock  is  cut  off  a 
few  inches  above  it.  All  other  buds  should  then  be 
rubbed  off  and  not  allowed  to  grow.  As  soon  as  the  bud 
has  made  a  good  growth,  the  old  part  of  the  tree  should 
be  cut  off  close  above  it  so  that  the  cut  may  heal  over 
l>efore  winter.  In  the  following  February  the  new 
shoot  must  be  pruned  back.  Pruning  must  be  done 
every  year  in  order  that  the  tree  may  have  symmetrical 
development  and  the  proper  number  of  branches  be 
allowed  to  grow. 

The  first  year  the  tree  bears  it  should  be  allowed  to 
1)  ;u  not  more  than  three  or  four  peaches,  and  the  next 
year  not  more  than  a  peck.  A  tree  properly  treated  will 
bear  five  to  ten  bushels  for  twenty  years. 


or  thk 
UNIVERSITY 

OF 


154   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

1 1 6.  Cherries  and  Grapes. — Cherries  and  grapes  are 
raised  with  as  little  trouble  as  any  fruits  and  are  always 
desirable.  Grapes  should  be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  as  the  buds  break,  to  prevent  rot  and  mildew. 
Some  persons  spray  cherries  with  kerosene  emulsion  just 
as  the  blossoms  fall  as  a  safeguard  against  the  moth  that 
would  otherwise  lay  its  eggs  in  the  ovary  of  the  cherry 
blossom.  Cherries  and  grapes  always  find  a  ready  mar- 
ket, and  if  they  are  of  good  varieties  and  have  been  care- 
fully picked,  they  bring  a  good  price. 

117.  Marketing  Fruit. — A  fruit  well  raised  is  half 
sold;  but  if  fruit  is  raised  for  the  market,  as  much  judg- 
ment may  be  needed  in  marketing  as  in  raising.  There 
will  always  be  more  than  one  grade  of  fruit,  and  each 
grade  should  be  sold  for  just  what  it  really  is.  There  is 
generally  a  demand  for  second-grade  fruit,  but  not  at 
first-grade  prices. 

Fall  fruits  and  those  which  perish  easily  should  be  dis- 
posed of  as  soon  as  possible.  It  is  better  to  sell  for  a 
small  profit  than  to  risk  losing  the  whole.  The  fruit 
raiser  should  know  the  condition  of  crops  in  all  parts  of 
the  country,  so  that  he  may  be  able  to  judge  whether  it  is 
best  to  hold  his  crop  for  a  higher  price.  He  must  also 
decide  whether  it  is  better  to  sell  at  once  at  a  small  price 
than  to  get  a  large  price  later,  after  part  of  his  fruit  has 
spoiled  and  he  has  had  the  expense  of  sorting  it. 

118.  Transplanting  and  Pruning. — In  transplanting 
trees,  choose  the  time  when  the  leaves  are  off  and  the 
ground  is  moist.  Dig  the  tree  carefully  so  as  not  to 
cut  off  many  of  the  small  terminal  rootlets,  or  to  let 
the  roots  get  dry  by  exposure  to  the  air.     In  any  soil 


How  to  Plant  a  Trek 


1.  Dig  the  hole  twice  as  large  as  2.  Pack    the    soil    firmly  about 

seems  necessary  and  fill  in  the  bot-         the  roots,   taking  care  to  spread 
tom  with  fine  rich  soil.  them. 


rth   down  as 
ihe  hole  is  filled. 


150 


i     \fi.T   the    tree    i-    planted 

mulch  it  with  loose  earth  eo  thai 
i>  soak  in. 


156   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

dig  the  hole  twice  as  large  as  seems  necessary,  and  fill 
the  bottom  with  fine  rich  soil.  Pack  the  soil  firmly 
about  the  roots,  taking  care  to  spread  them  and  not  to 
double  them  back.  Be  sure  that  the  roots  are  not  only 
set  in  good  fine  soil,  but  that  there  is  plenty  of  loose  soil 
for  them  to  grow  into.  One  person  should  hold  the 
tree  and  another  should  get  down  and  with  his  hands 
work  the  soil  all  about  the  roots. 

After  the  tree  is  placed  and  the  soil  replaced,  mulch 
it  with  six  inches  of  leaves  or  loose  manure.  Do  not 
have  sod  anywhere  above  the  roots  of  a  newly  set  tree. 
Drive  in  two  stout  stakes  and  fasten  the  young  tree, 
being  careful  not  to  compress  or  injure  the  bark.  Finally, 
prune  back  the  top  as  much  as  the  roots  were  pruned  in 
taking  up  the  tree.  Remember  that  the  roots  must 
never  become  dry  while  being  transplanted.  In  some 
localities  it  may  be  necessary  to  keep  the  tree  watered 
the  first  season  or  two,  but  in  most  places  this  will  not 
be  necessary  if  the  surface  soil  about  the  trunk  is  kept 
stirred. 

Pruning  is  done  to  change  the  vigor  of  the  plant,  to 
remove  dead  wood,  to  produce  better  fruit  or  flowers, 
to  open  the  plant  to  light  and  air,  to  keep  the  plant 
within  manageable  shape  and  size  to  facilitate  spraying, 
gathering  fruit,  and  cultivating,  or  to  train  to  some  de- 
sired form.  When  young  trees  are  set  it  is  generally 
best  to  prune  some  branches  to  allow  for  the  roots  de- 
stroyed in  transplanting.  The  size  and  quality  of  fruit 
are  made  better  by  judicious  pruning.  Excessive  pruning 
causes  overgrowth  of  wood.  Grapes  are  produced  on 
the  season's  growth  of  shoots  from  the  previous  season's 


THE    ORCHARD  157 

growth,  and  so  it  is  desirable  to  start  each  season  with 
wood  only  a  year  old.  Blackberries  and  raspberries 
grow  on  the  preceding  year's  canes,  so  old  canes  which 
have  borne  once  should  be  cut  out.  The  growing  canes 
should  be  cut  off  or  headed-in  when  the  plants  are  two 
to  three  feet  high. 

In  regard  to  the  time  of  year  for  pruning,  opinions 
differ.  It  is  generally  agreed,  however,  that  grapevines 
should  be  pruned  in  the  fall  or  winter,  and  trees  before 
growth  begins  in  the  spring — February,  March,  and 
early  April  in  the  northern  latitudes.  Dead  wood  may 
be  removed  at  any  time. 

Good  authorities  differ  in  regard  to  dressings  for 
wounds.  Professor  Bailey,  of  Cornell  University,  con- 
cludes as  the  result  of  many  experiments  that  there  is 
nothing  better  than  lead  paint,  but  that  the  nature  of 
the  wound  and  its  position  on  the  tree  have  more  in- 
fluence on  the  healing  than  either  the  season  of  the  year 
when  the  wound  is  made  or  the  kind  of  dressing  used. 
All  authorities  agree  that  the  wound  should  be  smooth 
and  the  heel  short,  so  that  the  bark  may  grow  over  and 
cover  the  wound.  Careful  pruners  cut  off  large  branches 
twice.  The  first  time  they  saw  about  halfway  through 
on  the  under  side  and  then  saw  down  on  the  upper  side 

iiort  distance  farther  out.  This  prevents  the  Limb 
splitting  as  it  falls  off.  The  short  stub  is  then  sawed  off 
close  to  the  limb  or  trunk. 

Note  various  trees  as  to  methods  of  pruning — long  stubs  and 
short,  and  relative  healing.    Choose  two  trees  of  a  certain  fruit 
by  side.    Spray  one,  and  compare  results  at  oarvest. — 
Study  pruning  methods  in  the  beat  orchard  In  your  vicinity. 


158   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

SUMMARY 

The  apple  is  one  of  the  most  universally  desired  fruits,  and 
by  a  careful  choice  of  varieties  a  supply  ma}'  be  had  the  year 
round. — The  pear  is  easily  raised  and  is  excellent  for  canning 
purposes. — The  peach  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  of  fruits,  both 
for  eating  fresh  and  for  preserving.  It  may  be  grown  where  the 
winters  are  not  too  severe. — Cherries  are  always  salable  and  re- 
quire little  care  or  expense. — To  get  good  fruit,  the  farmer  must 
have  good  stock,  properly  budded  or  grafted,  and  must  give 
attention  to  the  condition  of  the  soil,  pruning,  and  protection 
from  insect  enemies  and  plant  diseases. 

A  small  extra  expense  in  properly  picking  and  preparing 
fruit  for  the  market  will  often  bring  large  returns. — The  fruit 
grower  must  keep  informed  of  the  general  condition  of  crops  so 
as  to  determine  when  to  sell  and  what  price  he  can  get. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  Why  is  the  apple  king  of  fruits? 

2.  Why  is  it  generally  advisable  not  to  raise  crops  between 
the  rows  in  an  orchard? 

3.  Would  you  let  hogs  into  an  old  apple  orchard?     Why? 

4.  How  many  trees  may  be  set  in  a  one-acre  lot,  16  rods 
long,  if  the  trees  are  2  rods  apart,  no  tree  nearer  than  1  rod  to 
the  sides  of  the  field,  and  the  end  trees  set  on  the  line? 

5.  If  the  crop  is  worth  $10  per  tree,  what  would  be  the 
value  of  the  yield  per  acre? 

6.  A  man  had  200  barrels  of  apples  that  he  could  have  sold 
at  $2  per  barrel,  October  1st.  He  kept  them  until  April  and 
hired  a  man  for  $10  to  help  him  sort  and  repack  the  two  thirds 
which  had  not  decayed.  Then  he  sold  them  for  $3  per  barrel.  If 
interest  on  his  money  was  worth  5  per  cent,  how  much  did  he  lose? 

7.  How  much  time,  at  $2  a  day,  will  5  barrels  of  apples 
pay  for,  at  $3  a  barrel? 

8.  How  many  grapes  at  25  cents  a  basket  will  it  take  to  pay 
for  a  half  hour's  care  four  times  in  a  season,  allowing  20  cents 
an  hour  for  labor? 


CHAPTER  XV 


CATTLE 


119.  The  Usefulness  of  the  Cow. — Perhaps  the  most 
important  animal  kept  on  the  farm  is  the  cow.  Among 
its  more  important  products  are  milk,  butter,  cheese, 
meat,  leather,  manure.  The  cow  is  useful  to  the  farmer 
chiefly  for  dairy  purposes  and  for  beef.  Some  breeds  of 
cattle  combine,  in  a  measure,  the  qualities  of  both  dairy 
and  beef  types. 

120.  The  Dairy  Cow. — The  dairy  type  is  character- 
ized by  leanness  and  angularity.  It  has  large  abdominal 
capacity,  deep  chest,  a  small  head,  and  large  udder. 
The  neck  is  long,  thin,  and  muscular.     The  back  is 


ah  c 

Diagram  Bhowotg  Dairy  Ttpr  <-k  Cow. 

a,  front  vi<-\v;  /»,  rear  vii  \v;  r,  side  view. 


Si  long,  rather  long,  with  prominent  backbone.  The  hips 
are  wide  apart  and  prominent.  The  milk  veins  are 
prominent  and  branching.     Looked  at    from  the  side, 

1.7.1 


160    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

front,  and  above,  it  presents  the  form  of  a  wedge.  The 
four  principal  dairy  breeds  are  the  Holstein-Friesian, 
Guernsey,  Jersey,  and  Ayrshire. 

The  Holstein,  while  a  good  milker,  is  used  also  for 
beef.     It  is  the  largest  of  the  dairy  breeds,  although  the 


Holstein,  Colantha  Fourth's  "  Johanna,"  Champion  Dairy  Cow  of 
the  World.  Record  for  one  year:  milk,  27,432.5  lbs.;  average 
test,  3.64%;  butter  fat,  998.26  lbs.  Owned  by  W.  J.  Gillett, 
Wisconsin. 

size  varies  somewhat  according  to  the  feed  and  care  the 
animal  receives  before  reaching  maturity.  The  colors 
are  black  and  white.  It  has  been  bred  in  the  Nether- 
lands for  two  thousand  years.  There  it  is  kept  in  winter 
in  the  common  shelter,  separated  from  the  family  by  a 
thin  partition  only.  The  abundance  of  milk,  and  the 
large  size  of  the  animal,  are  attributed  to  the  great  care 
exercised  by  its  breeders  for  so  many  generations  and 
the  rich  pastures  which  it  always  enjoyed.     The  cows 


CATTLE 


161 


give  a  large  quantity  of  milk,  but  the  percentage  of 
butter  fat  may  be  small.  In  spite  of  this,  however,  the 
Holstein  has  now  (January,  1910)  the  champion  dairy 
cow  of  the  world,  Colantha  Fourth's  "  Johanna"  having 
produced  in  one  year  27,432.5  pounds  of  milk  averaging 
3.64  per  cent  fat,  and  998.26  pounds  of  butter  fat. 

The  Guernsey  is  a  rather  large  animal  of  a  quiet  dis- 
position, though  generally  not  so  large  as  the  Holstein. 
The  color  is  generally  light  brown,  with  white  patches 
on  the  body  and  legs.     The  ears  are  yellow  on  the  inside. 


Ir  *^r**^ 

?*M 

ii; 

n 

(  ii  BRM8B1    I'.i  ii.  "  (  '  \-i  i  i.ii.ii  V    No.    I' 
Owned  by  Ralph  Tratt,  Whitewater,  Wisconsin. 


The  average  weight  for  mature  cows  is  1,0.50  pounds, 
and  for  bulls  about  1,500  pounds.  The  milk  of  the 
Guernsey  often  tests  five  per  cent  or  more  of  butter  fat. 
The  milk,  cream,  and  butter  from  this  breed  are  generally 
a  deeper  yellow  than  that  of  the  other  breeds.     The 


162   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Guernsey  cow,  "  Yeksa  Sunbeam/'  has  a  record  for  1908 
of  14,920.8  pounds  of  milk  testing  5.74  per  cent  fat, 
and  857.15  pounds  of  fat.  "Dolly  Dimple,"  3^  years 
old,  is  the  champion  Guernsey  heifer  (1910).     She  has  a 


"Yeksa  Sunbeam,"  Guernsey  Cow.  Record  for  one  year:  milk, 
14,920.8  lbs.;  average  test,  5.74%;  fat,  857.15  lbs.  Owned  by 
Rietbrook  Estate,  Wisconsin. 

record  of  906.89  pounds  of  butter  fat.  The  Guernsey 
has  the  record  for  producing  more  pounds  of  butter  fat 
in  proportion  to  cost  of  keeping  than  any  other  breed. 

The  Jersey  originated  on  the  island  of  Jersey,  near 
the  coast  of  France.  It  is  a  remarkably  high-bred,  fine- 
grained animal.  The  color  may  be  any  shade  of  brown 
to  black,  various  shades  of  yellow  fawn,  and  tan,  or  even 
white.  Fawn  and  tan  seem  to  be  the  favorite  colors  in 
the  United  States.  Around  the  muzzle  there  is  a  char- 
acteristic ring  of  light-colored  hair  which  gives  the  ani- 


TATTLE 


163 


mal  the  appearance  of  having  dipped  her  nose  in  meal. 
Mature  cows  should  weigh "800  to  1,000  pounds  and 
bulls  1,200  to  1,500  pounds.  The  milk  of  the  Jersey  is 
often  too  rich  to  feed  undiluted  to  calves.  The  cham- 
pion Jersey  cow  of  the  world  (1910)  is  "  Jacoba  Irene," 
with  a  record  of  924  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  a  year. 


.Ii  nu  v  Cow,  "  Lady  Pandora, "  No.  17.">727. 
Owned  by  I •'.  II.  BeribnerA  Sons,  Rosendaie,  Wisconsin. 

The  Ayrshire  is  a  native  of  Scotland,  where  it  is  very 
hardy,  being  accustomed  to  roam  long  distances  for  its 
feed.  It  is  sprightly  and  active  and  well  adapted  for 
hilly  pastures  and  hard  conditions.  The  color  is  usually 
red  and  white,  the  two  colors  not  being  mixed,  but  ex- 


164    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

isting  in  patches.  The  standard  weight  for  mature  cows 
is  1,000  pounds,  while  bulls  should  weigh  1,500  pounds 
or  more.  The  breed  is  noted  for  the  large  quantity  of 
milk  yielded  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal  and 
to  the  quantity  of  food  consumed.  The  milk  is  said  to 
be  more  easily  digested  than  that  of  some  other  breeds. 


Rena  Ross,"  Champion  Ayrshire  Cow  of  the  World.  Record  for 
one  year:  milk,  15,072  lbs.;  average  test,  4.26%;  fat,  643.2  lbs. 
Owned. by  John  Valentine,  Pennsylvania. 


The  champion  Ayrshire  cow  at  the  present  time  is  "Rena 
Ross,"  with  a  record  of  15,072  pounds  of  milk  testing 
4.26  per  cent,  and  643.2  pounds  of  butter  fat. 

121.  Beef  Breeds. — Among  the  most  common  special 
beef  breeds  in  America  are  the  Hereford,  Galloway, 
Aberdeen-Angus,    Shorthorn,    Polled    Durham,    Polled 


CATTLE 


165 


Hereford,  and  Sussex.     The  general  form  of  the  beef 
animal  is  broad,  straight,  deep,  and  compact.     Viewed 


AJ 


Diagram  Showing  Beef  Type  of  Cow. 

from  almost  any  point  the  body  should  show  a  rectan- 
gular or  parallelogram  shape.  The  legs  are  short,  the 
loins,  back,  and  chest  thickly  covered  with  flesh.     The 


n  ■  It 

IMKIl      (\>\\ 


hips  arc  smooth  and  wide  apart.    The  angularity,  char- 
acteristic of  the  dairy  type,  does  not  appear. 

12 


166   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

The  Hereford,  first  brought  to  this  country  in  1817, 
has  been  imported  in  great  numbers  since  1879.  This 
breed  is  red,  with  a  white  face  and  a  white  line  extending 
back  from  the  head  to  a  greater  or  less  distance.  The 
Galloway,  first  imported  in  1853,  is  used  on  the  Western 
ranches  because  of  its  hardiness.  The  hair  is  long,  fine, 
shaggy,  thick,  and  black,  sometimes  tinged  with  brown, 
and  the  animals  are  without  horns.  In  the  Middle  West 
the  Aberdeen- Angus'  is  kept  in  greater  numbers  than  the 
Galloway.  It  is  a  larger  animal  than  the  latter;  the  hair 
is  smooth  and  black,  and  it  is  hornless.  It  was  first  im- 
ported in  1878.  The  Shorthorn  is  the  most  numerous 
beef  breed  in  America.  It  has  been  bred  for  both  beef 
and  milk,  so  that  we  find  distinct  meat  and  dairy  types. 
When  the  time  of  usefulness  for  milk  is  gone,  it  is  easy 
to  make  good  beef  cattle  of  them.  In  color,  the  Short- 
horn is  red  and  white,  or  any  mixture  of  these.  Unlike 
the  strict  dairy  cow,  the  food  of  the  Shorthorn  goes 
rather  to  flesh  than  to  milk.  This  breed  was  first  im- 
ported in  1783. 

The  Polled  Durham  resembles  the  Shorthorn,  except 
that  the  former  has  no  horns.  This  breed  has  the  dis- 
tinction of  being  the  only  breed  of  cattle  originated  in 
the  United  States.  The  Polled  Hereford  is  merely  a 
hornless  type  of  the  Hereford.  The  Sussex,  imported 
from  the  county  of  that  name  in  England,  has  never 
attained  great  popularity  in  America. 

122.  Advantages  in  Raising  Cattle. — You  can  easily 
think  of  many  advantages  in  raising  cattle.  A  ton  of 
hay  or  grain  is  worth  more  made  into  beef  or  milk  or 
butter  than  it  is  in  its  raw  condition.     Cattle  furnish  an 


CATTLE  167 

income  all  the  year.  In  no  other  way  can  the  fertility 
of  the  land  be  maintained  so  surely  and  easily  as  by  the 
use  of  barnyard  manure  (Sec.  35).  The  animal  fur- 
nishes a  variety  of  profitable  farm  products.  The  keep- 
ing of  livestock  greatly  affects  the  whole  plan  of  farm 
management. 

123.  The  Importance  of  Good  Cattle. — A  good  animal 
is  one  that  produces  the  most  value  from  a  given  amount 
of  food  consumed.  Many  farmers  do  not  realize  the  im- 
portance of  this.  A  little  figuring  will  show  that  a 
good  cow  will  soon  pay  for  the  difference  between  her 
cost  and  that  of  a  poor  individual.  Since  it  costs  little 
more  to  keep  a  cow  that  will  furnish  a  pound  of  butter  a 
day  than  one  that  furnishes  one  fourth  that  amount,  it 
is  best  for  the  farmer  to  consider  how  he  may  have  good 
cattle. 

If  the  student  lives  on  a  farm,  he  should  find  the  amount  of 
feed  consumed,  the  amount  of  milk  given,  and  the  percentage 
of  butter  fat  for  each  cow  kept  on  his  farm. 

124.  How  to  Improve  the  Herd. — The  farmer  who 
wishes  to  make  as  much  as  possible  from  his  cattle  will 
constantly  improve  his  herd.  Unless  he  is  making  a 
business  of  selling  pure-bred  cattle  it  is  not  necessary 
that  he  have  pure-bred  animals.  He  may  keep  up  his 
herd  by  buying  good  cattle  and  taking  care  of  them, 
feeding  them  properly,  and  seeing  that  their  surround- 
ings are  healthful  (see  Chapter  XX).  Or  he  may  im- 
prove the  herd  by  breeding  from  pure-blood  or  high- 
grade  males.  By  selling  off  the  lower  grade  and  keeping 
only  the  best  the  quality  can  be  raised.    Even  with 


168    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

cattle  of  the  same  grade  there  may  be  individual  differ- 
ences and  those  that  excel  in  the  points  desired  should 
be  retained  and  others  raised  from  them.  Many  of  our 
best  herds  are  thus  produced  by  "  grading  up."  Start- 
ing with  a  pure-bred  male,  the  third  generation  will  be 
seven  eighths  pure  and  the  fifth  generation  nearly  as 
good  as  pure. 

i.  After  studying  this  chapter,  the  student  should  take  occa- 
sion to  observe  different  breeds  of  cattle  and  note  their  differences. 
Special  visits  should  be  made  to  farms  where  other  breeds  are 
kept. 

2.  The  amount  of  feed  and  product  of  each  cow  of  the  home 
herd  should  be  determined  and  the  unprofitable  cows  singled  out. 


SUMMARY 

Farm  cattle  are  of  two  types — dairy  breeds  and  beef  breeds 
— distinct  in  appearance  and  in  the  purposes  for  which  they  are 
raised.  Cattle  are  necessary  on  a  farm  in  order  to  maintain 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  among  other  things. 

The  animal  eats  the  product  of  the  soil  and  turns  it  into 
profit,  furnishing  a  variety  of  valuable  products. — The  poor 
animal  costs  as  much  to  keep  as  the  superior  one — The  farmer 
should  know  the  producing  value  of  individual  cattle,  and 
should  use  this  knowledge  to  improve  his  herd  by  breeding. 


QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  Mention  some  characteristics  of  the  dairy  cow. 

2.  Why  should  a  dairy  cow  have  a  large  stomach? 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  of  hornless  cattle?     Does  it  pay 
to  dehorn  cattle? 

4.  Why  is  it  better  to  sell  beef  than  corn? 

5.  If  in  a  year  a  cow  eats  three  tons  of  hay  worth  $10  per 


CATTLE  169 

ton,  half  a  ton  of  mixed  feed  worth  $20  per  ton,  and  $6  worth 
of  pasture,  what  does  it  cost  to  feed  her? 

6.  If  a  poor  cow  gives  15  pounds  of  milk  daily  for  300  days 
in  the  year,  what  is  the  return  at  $1.25  per  hundred  pounds? 

7.  A  herd  of  15  Guernseys  gave  an  average  of  6,626  pounds 
of  milk  per  year.  What  was  the  return  per  cow  if  each  ate  the 
amount  stated  in  the  fifth  problem? 

8.  If  the  milk  was  used  for  butter  and  produced  355  pounds 
per  cow,  what  was  it  worth  at  25  cents  a  pound  for  the  15  cows? 

9.  If  each  cow  produced  one  calf  worth  $5  and  $10  worth 
of  manure,  how  much  did  the  farmer  get  for  his  work? 

10.  If  six  pounds  of  fat  will  make  seven  pounds  of  butter,  how 
much  would  the  butter  made  from  the  yearly  yield  of  "Rena 
Roes"  be  worth  at  25  cents  per  pound? 

11.  If  the  feed  for  the  year  cost  $60,  what  was  the  return 
for  care  and  profits? 

12.  Estimating  the  weight  of  milk  as  a  pound  to  a  pint,  what 
would  the  milk  of  "Rena  Ross"  bring  at  five  cents  a  pound? 

13.  Calculate  the  weight  of  butter,  value,  and  value  of  the 
milk  for  each  of  the  other  oowa  whose  pictures  are  given. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


MILK    AND    ITS    PRODUCTS 


125.  The  Composition  of  Milk. — Milk  consists  of 
water  in  which  certain  solids  are  dissolved  and  others 
are  suspended.    About  eighty-seven  per  cent  of  milk  is 

water.  In  this  water 
are  floating  minute 
globules  of  fat,  com- 
prising about  four  per 
cent  of  the  milk. 
Casein,  which  is  pro- 
teid  (Sec.  52),  forms 
about  two  and  one 
half  per  cent  of  milk. 
About  five  per  cent  is 
sugar.  A  little  more 
than  half  of  one  per 
cent  each  of  albumen 
and  ash,  which  are 
mineral  salts,  makes 
up  the  remainder.  The  average  composition  of  milk  is 
shown  by  the  accompanying  diagram. 

The  fat  globules  average  one  ten-thousandth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  which  means  that  forty  of  them  placed 

170 


Diagram  Showing  Composition  of  Milk. 
(S.  M.  Babcock,  Wis.  Bui.  No.  61.) 


MILK    AND    ITS    PRODUCTS 


171 


side  by  side  would  extend  a  distance  equal  to  the 
thickness  of  this  paper.  In  the  milk  of  Jersey  and 
Guernsey  cows  these  globules  are  larger  than  in  the 
milk  of  some  other  breeds,  and  so  the  cream  (which 


a.  Skimmed  milk. 


o    0   o 

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b.  Milk. 


:o.<&.o 


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c.  Cm 


Dim  hi  \ nr  ( \n  \i»is  oi  Mi 
Proa  Famant  ButMn  No.  42.  Wisc< 


unified  300  feimes.) 
ilMu.il  Bxpwimenl  Station. 


172   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

contains  the  fat)  rises  more  quickly  on  Jersey  or  Guern- 
sey milk.  The  fat  globules  in  the  milk  of  Ayrshires  are 
small. 

The  sugar  of  milk  may  be  obtained  by  evaporating 
whey  after  the  other  parts  of  the  milk  have  been  re- 
moved in  the  making  of  cheese.  Milk  sugar,  or  lactose, 
as  it  is  called,  is  generally  seen  in  the  form  of  a  white 
powder,  which  is  used  by  druggists  and  others  who 
prepare  medicines.  It  is  not  so  sweet  as  ordinary 
sugar. 

Albumen  is  the  substance  that  rises  as  a  thin,  tough 
skin  when  milk  is  scalded.  It  is  often  seen  on  the  top 
of  a  cup  of  chocolate  or  coffee. 

The  first  milk  given  by  a  cow  for  the  young  calf  is 
called  colostrum.  It  contains  five  or  six  times  as  much 
protein  as  does  ordinary  milk  and  is  not  good  for  ordi- 
nary purposes. 

Heat  some  milk  and  note  the  albumen  on  the  top. 

126.  The  Food  Value  of  Milk.— Milk  is  one  of  the 
most  perfect  foods,  as  is  shown  by  its  use  as  the  en- 
tire food  of  babies  and  young  animals.  It  contains 
casein  and  albumen  to  form  muscle,  fat  and  sugar  to 
produce  fat  and  energy,  and  mineral  salts  to  produce 
bones. 

127.  The  Souring  of  Milk. — The  souring  of  milk  is 
caused  by  bacteria.  These  minute  plant  growths  (Sec. 
32)  may  come  from  the  air  or  from  milk  pails  and  other 
utensils  in  the  dairy  that  are  not  kept  absolutely  clean. 
They  act  on  the  milk  sugar,  changing  it  to  "lactic" 
acid,  which  results  in  curdling  the  milk.     Milk  is  a 


MILK    AND    ITS    PRODUCTS 


173 


specially  good  home  for  bacteria  as  it  contains  just  the 
food  and  moisture  they  need.  When  it  is  at  the  right 
temperature,  they  de- 
velop very  fast. 

To  avoid  souring 


the  milk,  every  pre- 
caution for  cleanli- 
ness must  be  taken. 
The  hands  and  over- 
alls of  the  milker 
should  always  be  clean  at  milking-time.  Milk  pails, 
cans,  and  bottles,  as  soon  as  emptied,  should  be  washed 
in  scalding  water  and  aired  in  the  sun.      If  they  can 


Milk  Pails.     Note  which  one  is  best  pro- 
tected from  the  dust  and  dirt. 


Modki.  !:  .   \pi'\i:\M-  roR  Washing  Hxli   !'•■ 

be  sterilized  by  steam,  so  much  the  better.    No  work 
that  stirs  up  dust,  such  as  pitching  hay,  should  be 


174   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

done  in  the  barn  just  before  milking.  It  is  gener- 
ally advisable  to  brush  off  or  moisten  the  cow's  sides 
shortly  before  milking.  If  care  is  taken  always  to 
have  everything  concerned  in  handling  the  milk  clean, 
it  will  keep  pure  and  sweet  much  longer  than  if  care- 
lessly handled. 

Take  two  samples  of  milk  from  the  same  milking.  Allow 
one  sample  to  cool  naturally,  and  cool  the  other  by  placing  the 
can  containing  it  in  ice  water.  After  a  couple  of  hours  set 
both  samples  in  a  cool  place  and  note  which  one  sours  first. 

128.  The  Milk  Tester. — In  order  to  know  the  pro- 
ducing value  of  a  dairy  cow,  it  is  well  to  test  her  milk  in 
order  to  see  what  percentage  of  it  is  cream  or  butter  fat. 
This  can  be  done  by  means  of  a  Babcock  milk  tester. 
It  consists  of  a  machine  having  a  frame  made  to  whirl 
rapidly,  and  suitable  for  holding  tubes,  or  bottles,  of 
milk.  In  a  test  bottle  is  placed  17T6T  cubic  centimeters 
of  milk  from  one  of  the  lots  of  milk  to  be  tested.  Before 
the  sample  is  taken,  the  milk  should  be  thoroughly  mixed. 
To  this  milk  is  added  an  equal  amount  of  sulphuric  acid, 
which  dissolves  all  of  the  milk  constituents  except  the 
fat.  The  bottle  is  then  put  into  the  tester  and  whirled 
at  high  speed  for  five  minutes.  Hot  water  is  added  to 
bring  the  contents  up  to  the  base  of  the  neck  and  it  is 
whirled  again  for  two  minutes.  More  hot  water  is  then 
added,  sufficient  to  float  the  fat  up  into  the  neck  of  the 
bottle,  and  another  whirl  of  a  minute  is  given.  The 
percentage  of  fat  is  then  clearly  shown  on  the  graduated 
neck  of  the  bottle. 

129.  The  Separator. — When  a  large  amount  of  milk  is 
handled,  the  cream  is  generally  separated  from  the  rest 


"  1 1  it.  1,  spring  balance  for  weighing  milk;  2,  milk 
pail;  3,  galvanized-iron  box  for  keeping  samples  of  milk;  4,  sulphuric 
acid;  5,  Babcock  hand  tester;  6,  composite  sample  jar;  7,  beaker  for 
adding  acid;  8,  Beboock  test  l>«.ttles;  9,  acid  measure;  10,  25-c.c. 
pipette;  11,  17.0-c.c.  pipette;  12,  clinical  thermometer;  18,  bydrom- 
eter  for  determining  -t  rengtfa  <>f  sulphuric  acid;  14,  note-book. 

17.) 


176   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

of  the  milk  by  means  of  a  machine  called  a  separator. 
This  machine  may  be  run  by  steam  or  by  hand.  A  good 
separator,  properly  run,  will  take  out  at  least  ninety- 
eight  per  cent  of  the  cream  present,  while  skimming  by 
hand  by  the  simple  gravity  process  often  leaves  twenty 
or  thirty  per  cent  of  the  cream.  In  the  separator  the 
unskimmed  milk  is  made  to  revolve  at  an  exceedingly 
high  rate  of  speed.  The  milk,  being  heavier,  is  thrown 
to  the  outside  of  the  revolving  vessel,  while  the  cream 
is  forced  inward.  By  means  of  tubes  placed  at  the  right 
points,  the  milk  and  the  cream  are  drawn  off  separately. 

130.  Cream. — That  part  of  the  milk  into  which  most 
of  the  butter  fat  finally  gathers  is  called  cream.  It  may 
contain  fifteen  to  sixty  per  cent  fat.  The  separation  of 
the  fat  from  the  milk  is  brought  about  by  gravity  acting 
on  the  standing  milk.  Cream  is  lighter  than  the  rest  of 
the  milk,  and  so  the  latter  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  pan 
and  the  cream  is  pushed  up.  We  say  "  the  cream  rises," 
but  in  reality  it  is  pushed  up. 

Cream  is  more  or  less  yellow  in  color,  the  particular 
shade  depending  on  the  breed  and  individual  peculiari- 
ties of  the  cow,  and  the  kind  of  food  eaten.  Green  grass 
produces  a  more  yellow  cream  than  does  dry  hay. 

The  amount  of  cream  in  a  given  quantity  of  milk  de- 
pends on  the  cow,  and  is  quite  independent  of  the  feed. 
More  feed  ordinarily  produces  more  milk  and  thus  a 
larger  amount  of  cream,  but  not  a  larger  proportion  as 
related  to  the  whole  amount  of  milk.  One  writer  has 
said:  "The  richness  of  a  cow's  milk  is  as  much  a  char- 
acteristic of  the  cow  as  the  color  of  her  hair,  and  feeding 
has  as  little  to  do  with  it." 


MILK    AND    ITS    PRODUCTS 


177. 


131.  Skimmed  Milk. — The  skimmed  milk  that  is  left 
after  the  cream  is  removed  is  still  a  good  food,  especially 
for  young  animals.  The  fat  is  gone,  to  be  sure;  but  all 
the  other  constituents  remain  and  a  little  meal  will 
furnish  an  equivalent  amount  of  nourishment.  The 
meal  costs  only  a  fraction  of  what  the  butter  fat  is  worth, 
so  that  it  is  much  more  profitable  not  to  use  the  un- 
skimmed milk  as  feed  for  animals.  Skimmed  milk  con- 
tains more  protein  than  an  equal  weight  of  potato,  and 
nearly  one  fourth  as  much  carbohydrate  (Sec.  56). 

132.  Butter. — When  cream  has  been  tumbled  about 
for  a  half  hour  or  more  in  a  churn,  the  particles  of  fat 


A  Modi  I  UBBT.      Showing  a,  pMteUri/rr  with  ;i  r.ipacitv  of  2,/>()0 

pounds  per  hour;  />.  vat  m  whieh  eremm  ia  ripened  ii>  to  20  hours 
after  being  pneteurbed;  o,  1,000  pound  ohurn. 

Courteny  of  the  Union  Produce  Company,  Whitewater  Wis. 


178   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

unite  more  closely  into  small  grains,  separate  from  the 
water  and  other  parts  of  the  milk,  and  become  what  we 
call  butter.  This  product  still  contains  about  one  per 
cent  of  protein,  and  may  contain  more.  Butter  is  gener- 
ally made  from  soured  cream,  one  or  more  days  old, 
because  the  flavor  of  such  butter  is  considered  more 
desirable  by  most  persons  and  it  has  better  keeping 
qualities.  The  cream  should  be  kept  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture, 40°  or  50°  Fahrenheit,  and  the  churning  should  be 
done  at  a  temperature  of  50°  to  54°  in  summer  and  54° 
to  58°  or  higher  in  winter. 

Perhaps  the  best  churns  are  those  of  the  barrel  type, 
in  which  the  cream  simply  falls  from  one  side  of  the 
churn  to  the  other.  The  addition  of  paddles  is  thought 
to  injure  the  grain  of  the  butter.  Most  persons  demand 
that  their  butter  be  yellow,  so  butter  is  colored  during 
at  least  a  part  of  the  year.  Annatto  is  the  coloring 
matter  most  commonly  used.  A  small  quantity  is 
added  to  the  cream  before  churning.  Butter  gener- 
ally contains  about  eighteen  per  cent  water,  salt,  and 
curd. 

133.  Cheese. — The  same  separation  of  the  casein  that 
is  caused  by  the  souring  of  milk  may  be  produced  by 
adding  rennet  to  milk.  In  cheese-making  rennet  is  added 
to  produce  this  curd.  After  it  is  properly  formed  by 
the  help  of  heat,  it  is  carefully  cut  into  small  pieces. 
Heat  is  applied  for  perhaps  three  hours  longer  to  develop 
acidity,  before  the  whey  is  drawn  off.  The  curd  is  then 
handled  to  make  it  solid  and  to  drain  off  surplus  water. 
It  is  later  run  through  a  mill  and  cut  into  small  pieces, 
salted,  put  in  hoops  and  presses  to  form,  and  finally 


MILK    AND    ITS    PRODUCTS  179 

cured  in  a  cool  room  for  several  weeks  before  it  is  ready 
for  the  market. 

Cheese  contains  casein,  albumen,  ash,  and  fat  and  is 
very  nutritious.  Sometimes  the  cream  is  skimmed  off 
before  the  cheese  is  made.  Such  cheese  is  called  skim- 
milk  cheese,  or  skimmed  cheese  and  in  some  states  it 
must  be  made  at  least  nine  inches  high  to  distinguish  it 
from  full-cream  cheese.  Fat  is  sometimes  added  to 
skim-milk  cheese  to  take  the  place  of  the  cream.  It  is 
then  called  filled  cheese. 

Get  a  little  piece  of  rennet  from  the  cheese  factory.  Place 
it  in  milk  and  observe  the  formation  of  curd. 

The  liquid  left  from  cheese  making  is  called  whey. 
As  it  has  lost  its  casein  as  well  as  the  fat,  it  is  not  nearly 
so  valuable  a  food  for  calves  as  is  skimmed  milk.  For 
this  reason  it  is  often  better  for  the  farmer  to  carry  the 
milk  to  a  butter  factory  than  to  a  cheese  factory.  It  is 
better  still  for  the  farmer  to  separate  his  cream  at  home, 
for  then  it  is  separated  before  it  becomes  cold,  he  has  less 
weight  to  haul,  and  he  runs  no  danger  of  bringing  back 
from  the  factory  skimmed  milk  from  diseased  cows. 
We  have  learned  that  casein  is  a  proteid  that  contains 
nitrogen  (Sec.  52),  and  thus  we  see  why  it  is  better  to 
carry  back  to  the  farm  skimmed  milk  rather  than  whey. 

The  student  should  visit  butter  and  cheese  factories  and 
see  separators  and  the  Babcock  tester  at  work,  if  possible. 

SUMMARY 

Milk  is  composed  of  water,  fats,  protein,  sugar,  and  salts. 
It  contains  the  food  elements  th.it  produce  muscle,  bone,  and 


180   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

fat. — Cleanliness  in  every  detail  is  necessary  to  prevent  the 
souring  of  milk. — Fat  of  milk  is  made  into  butter. — Proteid  of 
milk  forms  the  bulk  of  cheese. — The  by-product  of  butter-making 
is  skimmed  milk,  which  is  more  valuable  as  food  than  the  by- 
product of  cheese-making,  which  is  whey. — It  is  usually  better 
to  sell  butter  than  cheese  upon  the  farm. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  What  is  protein? 

2.  How  does  protein  differ  from  carbohydrates? 

3.  Why  is  skimmed  milk  worth  more  than  whey? 

4.  Why  may  it  be  better  for  the  farmer  to  sell  butter  than 
cheese? 

5.  Why  is  it  better  to  feed  skimmed  milk  and  meal  to  calves 
than  to  feed  unskimmed  milk? 

6.  How  would  you  get  the  albumen  out  of  milk? 

7.  One  pound  of  butter  fat  will  make  1£  pounds  of  butter. 
Supposing  that  the  separator  takes  out  96  per  cent  of  the  butter 
fat,  how  many  pounds  of  butter  can  be  made  from  500  pounds 
of  milk  that  tests  4  per  cent  butter  fat? 

8.  If  this  milk  would  bring  80  cents  per  hundred  pounds  at 
the  factory,  how  much  more  would  the  butter  bring  at  20  cents 
a  pound? 

9.  How  many  hours  extra  work  would  the  increase  pay  for? 

10.  Which  weighs  more,  a  gallon  of  cream  or  a  gallon  of 
milk?     Give  a  reason  for  your  answer. 

1 1 .  What  is  the  advantage  of  testing  the  milk  of  the  separate 
cows  of  a  herd? 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  HORSE 

134.  Antecedents  and  Types. — Geologists  have  de- 
termined that  in  prehistoric  periods  there  were  horses  in 
the  United  States.  The  horses  now  used  in  this  country, 
however,  are  descended  not  from  these,  but  from  im- 
ported stock,  chiefly  from  P^urope.  Arabia  and  Eastern 
countries  have  also  furnished  many  fine  animals  that 
have  contributed  to  the  development  of  the  present 
types. 

The  types  of  horses  generally  recognized  are  classified 
as  draft,  coach,  roadster,  speed  and  saddle  horses,  and 
ponies.  To  these  may  be  added  a  fourth  type,  general 
utility  horses,  or  carriage  and  coach  horses;  they  are 
heavier  than  the  trotter  and  lighter  than  the  draft  horses. 
Although  these  types  are  very  different  from  one  another, 
it  is  believed  that  they  have  all  sprung  from  one  stock. 
The  differences  have  grown  out  of  the  various  conditions 
in  which  horses  have  lived  and  worked,  in  many  differ- 
ent climates  and  through  many  generations.  Selection 
and  skillful  breeding  also  have  done  much  to  change  the 
characteristics  of  horses. 

135.  Desirable  Characteristics. — There  are  certain 
points,  well  known  to  horsemen,  which  should  be  care- 

18  181 


182    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

fully  observed  in  buying  a  horse.  Looked  at  from  before 
or  behind,  the  legs  should  be  straight  and  the  feet  as  far 
apart  as  the  width  of  a  hoof;  that  is,  the  horse  should 
be  neither  bow-legged  nor  the  opposite.  Looked  at 
from  the  side,  the  front  legs  should  be  straight  to  the 


The  External  Parts  op  the  Horse.  1,  face;  2,  fore  head;  3,  ears;  4, 
muzzle;  5,  cheek  or  jowl;  6,  poll;  7,  throat;  8,  carotid;  9,  neck;  10, 
crest;  11,  jugular  channel  or  furrow;  12,  breast;  13,  withers;  14,  back  ; 
15,  ribs;  16,  girth;  17,  loins;  18,  croup;  19,  dock;  20,  flank;  21,  belly; 
22,  point  of  shoulder;  23,  elbow;  24,  forearm;  25,  knee;  26,  canon  or 
shank;  27,  fetlock  joint;  28,  pastern;  29,  coronet;  30,  foot;  31,  ergot 
and  fetlock;  32,  haunch;  33,  thigh;  34,  stifle;  35,  buttock;  36,  leg; 
37,  hock;  38,  canon  or  shank;  39,  fetlock  joint;  40,  ergot  and  fetlock; 
41,  pastern;  42,  coronet;  43,  foot;  44,  lower  thigh;  45,  point  of  hock. 


fetlock,  or  pastern  joint,  and  the  hind  legs  should  have 
no  tendency  to  "cock"  ankle  in  front,  but  be  well  set. 
The  forehead  should  be  broad,  nostrils  thin  and  open, 


THE    HORSE  183 

and  the  two  halves  of  the  lower  jaw  wide  apart.  The 
eye  should  be  full  and  should  have  an  intelligent,  not 
vicious,  appearance.  The  ears  should  be  erect  and 
active.  In  a  draft  horse,  the  chest  should  be  broad, 
and  in  trotters  it  should  be  deep. 

136.  Speed  Horses. — The  Arabians,  the  Thorough- 
bred, and  the  families  of  the  American  Trotter  are  the 
horses  noted  chiefly  for  speed.  Prominent  among 
American  Trotters  are  the  Hambletonians,  Mambrinos, 
and  Morgans.  The  introduction  of  Arabian  horses  has 
produced  great  improvement  in  England;  yet  it  is  a  fact 
that  those  imported  into  the  United  States  have  not 
been  able  to  compete  with  American-bred  horses.  The 
Arabians,  however,  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty, 
intelligence,  and  fine  points. 

Thoroughbred  is  the  name  given  to  a  distinct  breed 
of  English  horses  which  have  been  bred  for  racing 
through  many  generations.  These  horses  contain  much 
Kastern  blood  and  are  noted  for  their  speed  and  endur- 
ance. The  colors  are  usually  bay,  chestnut,  or  brown, 
but  sometimes  black  <  >r  gray.  The  Thoroughbred  is  used 
in  the  famous  English  hunting  trips.  The  best  hunting 
horses  are  a  cross  between  the  Thoroughbred  and  the 
Hackney. 

The  father  of  nearly  all  the  American  families  of 
trotters  was  ''Imported  Messenger,"  brought  to  this 
country  in  L788.  This  horse  is  described  as  having 
remarkable  life,  strength,  and  endurance.  He  was  gray 
in  color,  had  a  large,  bony  head,  short  neck,  and  unusu- 
ally large  Qoetrils.  "  All  accounts  concur  in  representing 
iger '  as  being  a  horse  of  very  superior,  though  not 


184    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  ■  AGRICULTURE 

handsome,  form,  and  possessing  extraordinary  power  and 
spirit."  Hambletonian,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the 
American  trotting  sires,  is  descended  on  the  male  side 
from  "  Imported  Messenger,"  was  foaled  in  1849  and  kept 
in  Orange  County,  N.  Y.,  until  1876.  Mambrinos  are 
descended  from  "Mambrino  Chief,"  foaled  in  1844,  a 


American  Thoroughbred  Trotter,  "Major  Klenert,''  No.  42450. 
Three  j'ears  old;  16  hands  high;  record,  2.29|.  Owned  by  Klenert 
Brothers,  Portage,  Wis. 

great-grandson  of  "  Imported  Messenger."  "  Mambrino 
Chief"  lived  in  Kentucky  and  was  the  ancestor  of  many 
Blue  Grass  trotters.  One  of  his  descendants,  "Minor 
Heir,"  holds  the  world's  official  record  for  1908,  a  mile 
paced  in  1.594.  Another  famous  pacer,  "Dan  Patch," 
traces  his  ancestry  back  to  "  Imported  Messenger"  forty- 
three  times,  and  has  a  pacing  record  of  a  mile  in  1.55 J. 
One  of  the  most  useful  of  American  trotters  was 


THE    ITORSE 


185 


"  Justin  Morgan/'  the  sire  of  all  the  Morgans.  The  Mor- 
gans are  useful  not  only  as  trotters,  but  for  family  horses 
and  for  general  purposes,  being  noted  for  speed,  endur- 
ance, and  reliability.  One  of  these  horses  is  said  never 
to  have  lost  a  trip  in  twenty-five  years  of  service  on  the 
Boston  street-car  lines.  This  horse,  on  being  retired  from 
active  service,  was  kept  by  the  company  in  comfort  and 
luxury  until  he  died,  at  more  than  forty  years  of  age. 

137.  Draft  Horses. — The  draft  horses  differ  from  the 
trotters  much  as  the  beef  breeds  of  cattle  differ  from  the 


('ll\MI-IH\      l\!|M,|;  I  l.l>     I  "l .  I<<    1 1  I    l<«  >  N  ,     "  Sl.\l.l.l"N      l*l\k." 

Dunham  and  Fiitaber,  Wayne,  111. 

dairy  breeds.  The  body  ifl  shorter,  broader,  and  more 
nearly  cylindrical.  The  legs  are  short  and  stout,  the 
boofa  are  large,  and  the  walls  are  strong.     They  are 


186    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

characterized  by  great  weight  and  rather  slow  move- 
ments. 

Among  the  more  important  draft  breeds  are  the 
Percherons.  These  horses  are  often  gray  in  color,  a 
condition  believed  to  be  due  to  Arabian  blood;  but  they 
are  sometimes  black.  They  are  able  to  draw  a  good  load 
at  more  than  moderate  speed,  and  although  they  are 
heavy  horses  they  are  by  no  means  lacking  in  snap. 


Champion  English  Shire  Stallion,  "Stroxton  Tom."  Notice  the 
good  form  across  the  loins,  wide  neck  well  set  on  the  shoulders,  and 
fine  forward  legs. 

The  English  Shire  horse  is  one  of  the  heaviest  breeds. 
It  may  be  almost  any  color,  although  black,  bay,  and 


THE    HORSE  187 

brown  are  the  most  common  colors.  It  usually  has  a 
white  spot  on  the  forehead  and  may  have  one  or  more 
white  feet.  These  horses  can  pull  great  loads  at  a  slow, 
steady  gait,  but  lack  the  life  and  energy  of  the  Percherons. 

The  Clydesdale  is  another  draft  horse,  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  Shire,  but  much  more  active.  It  is  a 
rapid  walker  and  is  much  prized  for  that  reason.  It  has 
a  kind,  quiet  disposition  and  good  courage.  In  its  colors 
and  markings  it  resembles  the  Shire. 

Other  important  draft  types  are  the  Belgian  and  the 
Suffold.  Neither  is  so  popular  in  this  country  as  the 
above  breeds. 

138.  Coach  Horses. — Coach  horses  combine  the 
activity  of  the  trotter  with  somewhat  of  the  strength  of 
draft  horses.  Many  of  them  are  required  to  draw  heavy 
carriages  at  a  good  speed.  They  are  also  expected  to 
show  some  style,  the  more  the  better.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  French  coach  horse,  the  German 
coach,  and  the  Hackney.  The  Hackneys  are  said  to 
give  endurance  to  the  progeny  of  the  English  Thorough- 
bred,  with  which  they  are  crossed. 

139.  Ponies.— Shetland  Ponies  are  (he  well-known 
sturdy  little  beasts  that  in  this  country  are  used  chiefly 
for  children's  pets.  They  will  endure  almost  any 
amount  of  hard  Usage  and  poor  fare  and  will  do  a  great 
amount  of  work  for  their  little  masters  and  mist  1  < 

In  England  they  are  much  used  in  coal  mines.  Their 
native  home  is  the  Shetland  Islands  north  of  Scotland. 
Welsh  ponies  are  growing  in  popularity  in  America, 
and  many  are  being  imported  and  some  bred  here. 
They  are  also  children  >  1 


188    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

In  the  United  States  there  are  two  other  common 
breeds  of  ponies,  the  Bronco  and  the  Northern  Indian 
pony,  which  have  descended  from  horses  that  escaped 
from  the  early  Spanish  explorers.  They  are  the  saddle 
horses  of  the  Western  cowboys  and  are  good  cavalry 
horses.     They  have  great  endurance. 

Learn  the  different  breeds  of  horses  in  your  locality.  Some- 
body knows  and  will  gladly  tell  you. 

140.  Use  and  Care  of  Horses. — Although  horses  ap- 
pear to  be  strong  and  hardy,  yet  they  are  very  easily 
lamed  or  made  ill.  They  should  be  fed  as  regularly  as 
possible,  and  should  not  be  overfed,  nor  should  the  feed 
be  changed  suddenly.  The  horse  has  a  small  stomach 
and  therefore  its  feed  should  not  be  too  bulky.  Chang- 
ing from  old  hay  to  new  hay  or  grass  is  likely  to  cause 
indigestion,  an  ill  which  frequently  becomes  very  serious. 
Overfeeding  a  horse  that  has  been  kept  on  short  rations 
has  the  same  effect.  New  oats  and  corn  should  be  fed 
with  caution.  Dusty  hay  is  to  be  avoided,  certainly 
unless  sprinkled.  When  a  horse  is  heated,  it  should  not 
be  fed  grain.  It  is  safer  and  better  to  let  the  horse  stand 
half  an  hour.  A  little  hay  may  be  given,  but  some  care- 
ful owners  will  not  give  even  hay  to  a  warm  horse. 

Care  should  be  exercised  also  not  to  give  a  heated 
horse  too  much  cold  water.  Authorities  differ  some- 
what in  regard  to  watering  horses  before  or  after  eating. 
Most  persons  think  it  is  better  to  water  the  horse  before 
eating;  but  if  a  horse  is  very  hungry  he  will  not  drink 
much  until  after  eating.  Many  animals,  free  to  do  as 
they  like,  eat  first,  then  drink  and  lie  down  to  digest 


THE    HORSE  189 

their  food.     There  are  reasons  for  believing  that  Nature 
is  a  fairly  safe  guide  in  these  things. 

Hardly  any  animal  better  repays  the  care  given  to 
it  than  the  horse.  A  horse  should  be  groomed  each 
morning,  to  promote  the  health  of  the  skin  as  well  as  to 
improve  the  appearance.  In  cold  weather  care  should 
be  exercised  to  prevent  a  horse  getting  chilled  after 
being  heated.  It  is  bad  practice  to  allow  a  horse  to 
dry  off  in  winter  without  a  blanket,  or  to  sleep  in  a  wet 
blanket.  It  is  fair  to  add,  however,  that  many  farm 
horses  are  never  blanketed  and  seem  to  get  along  just 
as  well,  Nature  furnishing  them  with  an  extra  thick 
coat  of  hair  in  such  cases.  In  snowy  time  the  balls 
should  be  knocked  out  of  the  horse's  feet  and  the  snow 
cleaned  out  of  the  hair  near  the  feet  when  the  horse 
comes  in  for  the  night. 

In  winter,  notice  the  difference  in  the  hair  of  horses  that  are 
blanketed  and  those  that  are  not. 

There  are  many  ways  in  which  a  horse  may  be 
lamed.  Fast  driving  over  hard  roads  and  down  hills  is 
likely  to  cause  " knee-sprung"  and  "cock-ankled" 
horses.  Many  persons  make  the  mistake  of  not  having 
horses  shod  often  enough.  A  little  saving  in  black- 
smith's bills  may  result  in  a  greater  loss  in  lame  horses. 
The  feet  of  a  horse  are  second  to  no  other  parts  of  his 
body  in  importance. 

141.  The  Intelligence  of  Horses. — Horses  differ  greatly 
in  intelligence,  but  even  the  most  intelligent  cannot  be 
wholly  trusted.  A  horse  will  trot  along  a  given  road  for 
years  with  confidence;  but  let  a  piece  of  paper  blow 


190    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

across  his  path  and  he  may  shy  or  bolt  or  run.  The  chief 
mental  quality  of  a  horse  is  memory.  One  unjust  stroke 
of  the  whip  or  a  blow  of  your  fist,  and  the  horse  is  no 
longer  your  friend.  If  you  once  forget  to  unfasten  the 
holdback  and  let  the  horse  get  caught  coming  out  of  the 
thills,  you  may  look  for  trouble  ever  after. 

SUMMARY 

All  horses  are  probably  derived  from  one  stock. — The  finest 
horses  were  originally  found  in  the  East. — Four  common  types 
of  horses  are :  trotters,  draft  horses,  coach  horses,  and  ponies. — 
The  different  types  of  horses  are  the  result  of  various  conditions 
of  life  and  of  direct  selection  and  breeding. — Among  those  noted 
for  speed  are  the  Thoroughbred  families,  Hambletonian,  Mam- 
brino,  and  Morgan  and  Standardbred  Trotter  and  Pacer. — Draft 
horses  are  the  Percheron,  English  Shire,  Clydesdale,  Belgian,  and 
Suffolk. — Popular  breeds  of  coach  horses  are  the  French, 
German,  and  Hackney  Coach. — Three  common  breeds  of  ponies 
are  the  Shetland,  Northern  Indian,  and  Bronco. — Horses  are 
sensitive  to  unwise  feeding  and  to  hard  usage.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  make  them  ill  or  lame. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  Why  is  the  horse  important  to  the  farmer? 

2.  Has  horse  trotting  been  of  use  to  the  world?     Why? 

3.  Why  is  it  better  to  raise  a  blooded  colt  than  a  "scrub"? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

SHEEP  AND  SWINE 

142.  Advantages  of  Sheep  Raising. — On  many  farms 
sheep  may  be  raised  with  much  profit.  The  sheep  yields 
two  valuable  products,  wool  and  meat.  Both  of  these 
are  always  in  demand.  Sheep  are  valuable  also  to 
the  soil  in  fertilizing  pastures  on  which  they  feed,  as  well 
as  in  destroying  weeds  and  underbrush.  They  can 
feed  and  be  well  nourished  where  cattle  would  find  in- 
sufficient feed.  They  also  eat  a  great  variety  of  feed. 
In  some  ways,  however,  they  are  rather  dainty  feeders; 
they  will  not  do  well  on  stale  feed.  Wool  of  even  qual- 
ity is  not  produced  unless  conditions  of  feeding  and  care 
are  good. 

Experiments  with  sheep  and  cattle  have  shown  that 
it  costs  less  to  add  a  pound  of  mutton  to  sheep  than  it 
•  Iocs  to  add  a  pound  of  beef  to  cattle.  Cattle  eat  less 
per  thousand  weight  than  sheep,  but  they  do  not  gain 
so  large  a  percentage  of  their  feed.  At  the  Ohio  Ex- 
periment Station  it  was  shown  that  it  took  8.9  pounds 
of  dry  matter  in  feed  to  produce  one  pound  of  increase 
in  live  weight  in  cattle,  and  7.37  pounds  to  produce  one 
pdund  increase  in  lambs. 

143.  Breeds  of  Sheep. — Sheep  were  formerly  kept 
almost    entirely   for  their  wool,  and  BO  the  breeds  are 

191 


192    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

classified  as  short-wooled,  medium-wooled,  and  long- 
wooled.  The  principal  short- wooled  breed  in  the 
United  States  is  the  Merino.  It  is  represented  by  several 
families,  the  most  familiar  being  the  American,  Delaine, 


Davenports.     Long-wooled  breed. 


and  Rambouillet.  The  Merinos  originated  in  Spain, 
and  it  is  said  that  the  robes  of  Roman  emperors,  two 
thousand  years  ago,  were  made  from  the  fine  wool  of 
Merinos.  The  American  produces  a  very  fine  wool  on  a 
very  wrinkled  body.  It  does  not  produce  very  good 
mutton.  The  Delaine  has  a  smooth  body  and  its  wool  is 
slightly  longer  and  coarser  in  fiber  than  that  of  the 
American  Merino,  well  adapted  to  carding.  From  this 
wool  a  fabric  called  Delaine  is  made.  The  Rambouillet 
is  a  French  breed  derived  from  Merinos  imported  from 


SHEEP    AND    SWINE  193 

Spain.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  Merinos,  and  is  raised  for 
mutton  as  well  as  for  wool. 

Among  the  medium-wooled  breeds  may  be  mentioned 
the  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Dorset  Horn,  Hampshire, 
and  Oxford.  The  Southdown  is  a  thick-set  sheep,  horn- 
less, with  face  and  legs  of  a  grayish-brown  color.  It  is 
the  smallest  of  the  "Down"  or  medium-wooled  breeds. 
It  is  much  raised  for  mutton.  Individuals  weigh  one 
hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds,  and  produce 
a  fleece  weighing  six  to  seven  pounds. 

The  Shropshires  are  from  the  county  of  that  name 
in  England.  The  face  and  legs  are  darker  colored  than 
the  Southdowns,  and  the  Shropshires  are  heavier  and 
yield  more  wool.  They  are  much  raised  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  being  better  adapted  to  withstand  a  wet  climate 
than  some  others.  Many  common  herds  are  crossed  with 
Shropshires  with  good  results.  After  the  Merinos  they 
are  the  great  American  sheep. 

The  Dorset  Horn  is  one  of  the  well-established 
breeds  of  England.  In  the  United  States  it  is  kept  in 
localities  where  the  raising  of  lambs  for  the  market  is  an 
important  industry.     It  yields  a  rather  light,  short  fleece. 

The  Hampshire  is  a  black-faced  breed,  imported  from 
Bnglaiid.  It  if?  hardy,  a  good  grazer,  and  is  widely 
scattered  throughout  Canada  and  United  States.  The 
lambs  grow  with  great  rapidity.  The  mutton  is  of  good 
quality.  The  fleece  is  light,  short,  and  inferior.  The 
Suffolk  Down  is  a  large,  black-faced,  hornless,  rangy 
sheep,  originated  in  Suffolk  County,  England.  It  is  a 
relatively  recent  introduction  to  America.  The  wool  is 
of  good  quality  and  the  mutton  is  excellent. 


194   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

The  Oxford  is  the  largest  of  the  medium-wooled 
sheep.  It  has  a  dark  face  and  no  horns.  It  is  the  sheep 
best  adapted  to  feed  on  wet  pastures.  It  is  especially 
useful  to  produce  mutton  lambs  to  be  marketed  in  early 
summer,  at  four  to  five  months  of  age. 


Dorset  Horn  Sheep.     Medium-wooled  breed. 


The  long-wooled  breeds,  represented  by  the  Cheviot, 
Leicester,  Cotswold,  and  Lincoln,  are  not  much  raised  in 
the  United  States.  The  Lincoln  is  one  of  the  largest  of  all 
breeds,  mature  rams  sometimes  weighing  two  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds. 

144.  Advantages  of  Raising  Swine. — Swine  will 
change  corn  and  other  feed  into  salable  meat  in  less  time 
and  at  less  expense  than  perhaps  any  other  farm  animal. 
They  will  consume  waste  products,  and  are  a  good  side 
line  on  any  farm.     Much  of  this  time  they  require  very 


SHEEP    AND    SWINE  195 

little  care,  They  also  grub  out  the  land  and  enrich  it. 
For  these  reasons  they  are  profitable  stock  to  keep. 

145.  Breeds  of  Swine. — Swine  are  classified  as  large, 
medium,  and  small  breeds.  The  large  breeds  are  the 
Chester  White,  Large  Yorkshire,  and  Tamworth;  the 
medium  breeds,  Berkshire,  Cheshire,  Duroc  Jersey, 
Hampshire,  Poland  China,  and  Victoria;  the  small 
breeds,  Essex,  Small  Yorkshire,  and  Suffolk. 

The  Chester  White  is  largely  distributed  over  the 
United  States.  It  can  be  made  to  gain  a  pound  a  day 
for  two  years,  but  4p0  to  500  pounds  is  good  weight.     It 


Chksii.i;  Whites. 

is  especially  the  fat  hog  or  lard  type,  but  makes  fair 
bacon.  It  is  grown  especially  in  places  where  hogs  are 
kept  in  pens  instead  of  in  the  field. 

One  of  the  most  popular  breeds  is  the  Poland-China, 
which  originated  in  Ohio.  The  color  is  black  and  white, 
the  white  being  confined  to  the  four  feet,  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  and  the  nose,  in  good  specimens.  The  face  is  dished 
and  the  nose  of  medium  length.  These  hogs  are  popular 
because  they  are  peaceable  and  strong-boned  and  fatten 
<  a-ilv.    They  are  of  the  lard  hog  type.     It  is  not  un- 


196    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

usual  for  one  to  weigh  two  hundred  and  thirty  pounds  at 
six  nionths. 

In  some  parts  of  the  United  States  the  Duroc  Jersey 
is  a  popular  hog.     The  color  varies  from  yellow  to  red, 


Poland-China. 

cherry  red  being  the  standard  color.  This  breed  is  very 
hardy,  prolific,  good  mothers,  and  with  good  disposition. 
There  is  more  lean  in  their  meat  than  in  that  of  the 
Poland-China,  but  it  is  still  of  the  lard  type. 

Perhaps  no  hog  is  more  valued  in  America  than  the 
Berkshire,  a  fat  hog  type.  The  color  is  black,  with  white 
on  face,  feet,  and  tip  of  tail.  The  face  is  dished,  and  the 
ears  generally  carried  erect.  The  body  has  good  depth 
and  strength .  It  is  widely  scattered  throughout  America. 
The  quality  of  the  meat  is  high. 

The  Cheshire  should  also  be  mentioned.  "The  color 
is  white,  head  small  and  long,  ears  erect,  hair  thin,  legs 
rather  long,  body  long  in  proportion  to  the  other  dimen- 


SHEEP    AND    SWINE 


197 


rions,  bone  fine."  It  is  of  American  origin,  and  is  of  the 
fat  hog  type.  The  large  Yorkshire,  an  English  breed, 
is  being  raised  where  bacon  hogs  are  in  demand. 

The  small  Yorkshire  is  widely  raised,  especially 
where  hogs  are  kept  in  a  pen.  The  nose  is  very  short, 
and  when  the  animal  is  fat  the  eyes  are  almost  closed. 
It  is  generally  killed  and  sold  when  it  weighs  about  two 
hundred  pounds.  In  feeding,  it  is  generally  "forced," 
or  fattened  as  quickly  as  possible.  It  is  a  fat  or  lard  hog, 
of  little  importance  in  America.  The  Suffolk  closely 
resembles  the  small  Yorkshire,  and  is  of  little  importance 
in  America.     The  Tarn  worth  is  a  bacon  hog,  a  golden  red 


1 

■t      «. 

.* 

**» 

4 

HI 

Berkshiri  b. 


in  color  and  little  raised  in  United  States.  The  Victo.ia, 
B  lard  hog,  id  also  little  raised  here.  The  Essex  is  an- 
other small  breed  that  is  becoming  popular.  The  color 
is  black,  face  short  and  dished,  hair  thin,  carcass  long  and 
deep.  The  animal  easily  takes  on  fat.  The  Hampshire, 
valued  both  for  bacon  and  for  lard,  is  characterized  by 

14 


198   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

having  a  band  of  white  encircling  the  body  and  including 
the  fore  legs. 

146.  Where  and  How  to  Raise  Swine. — The  hog  has 
been  well  called  the  mortgage-lifter,  and  such  it  is  in 
the  great  corn  belt  extending  from  Ohio  to  Kansas.  The 
profit  depends  on  the  supply  of  cheaply  grown  corn  and 
the  ability  of  the  hog  to  get  about  half  the  necessary  feed 
by  grazing.  Where  the  latter  condition  is  wanting  the 
profits,  at  least  in  the  West  and  South,  will  be  uncertain. 
There  should  be  good  grazing  ground,  clean  water,  and 
shade.  The  source  of  the  drinking  water  supply  should 
not  be  a  wallowing  place.  The  shade  in  summer  should 
be  from  trees  rather  than  buildings  in  order  that  there 
may  be  a  breeze.  Hogs  thrive  better  in  small  droves, 
and  if  many  are  kept  it  is  better  to  separate  them  than 
to  let  them  all  run  together.  The  breeding  sows  should 
be  kept  apart  from  the  fattening  herd. 

Many  keepers  of  hogs  raise  forage  crops,  such  as 
clover,  oats,  vetch,  cowpeas,  and,  in  the  South,  sweet 
potatoes,  peanuts,  and  chufa.  It  is  better  to  raise  a 
variety  of  crops  on  small  tracts  than  only  one  kind. 
Some  breeders  have  portable  fences  to  control  the  feed- 
ing. Salt  and  ashes  should  be  supplied  freely,  and  fre- 
quent change  of  feed  is  desirable.  When  grain  is  fed  it 
should  not  be  thrown  on  soft  ground  to  be  trampled  in 
the  mud.  Short  and  ground  feed  should  be  wet  and  fed 
in  a  trough.  Shelters  for  hogs  will  vary  with  the  latitude 
and  climate,  but  in  all  cases  it  is  better  to  have  a  floor. 
Many  farmers  use  portable  hog  houses. 

It  is  found  to  be  cheaper  to  raise  two  hogs  weighing 
three  hundred  pounds  each  than  one  weighing  six  hun- 


SHEEP    AND    SWINE  199 

dred  pounds.  Experiments  have  shown  that  three  or 
four  pounds  of  feed  will  add  a  pound  to  the  weight  of  a 
hog  under  a  hundred  pounds,  while  more  than  five  pounds 
of  feed  are  required  to  put  a  pound  of  weight  on  a  hog 
weighing  over  three  hundred  pounds.  The  most  money- 
is  made  by  fattening  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  if  a  hog 
is  not  gaining  about  a  pound  a  day  it  should  be  sold. 
During  the  last  six  weeks  corn  is  the  best  grain  to  feed. 
Young  pigs  should  be  taught  to  eat  some  grain  and 
forage  even  before  they  are  weaned.  A  few  grains  of 
soaked  corn  scattered  on  the  floor  will  encourage  them. 
Around  the  pen  of  the  young  pigs  a  plank  should  ex- 
tend, raised  a  few  inches  from  the  floor  to  afford  a  pro- 
tection for  the  pigs  from  their  mother.  Under  this, 
soaked  corn,  shorts  and  oats  may  be  scattered.  Experi- 
ments have  shown  that  the  value  of  grain  for  hogs  is  in- 
creased if  it  is  mixed  with  skimmed  milk.  Skimmed  milk 
is  not  only  a  good  flesh  producer,  but  it  also  makes  the 
grain  more  digestible.  One  bushel  of  corn  and  one 
hundred  pounds  of  skimmed  milk  produced,  in  a  certain 
test,  fifteen  pounds  of  gain  when  fed  separately,  and 
eighteen  pounds  when  mixed  and  fvd. 

When  raising  hogs  for  the  market  one  should  raise 
pure-bred  or  at  least  high-grade  animals.  The  pure- 
bred hog  will  weigh  nearly  twice  as  much  on  (he  same 
feed,  and  the  loss  in  dressing  will  not  be  over  twenty-five 
per  cent,  while  the  scrub  hog  will  lose  one  third. 

SUMMARY 

Sheep  produce  two  valuable  and  necessary  products — 
mutton  and  wool — and  arc  a  benefit   <<>  1 1 1 « -  land. — Breedi  of 


200    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

sheep  are  divided  into  short-wooled,  medium-wooled,  and  long- 
wooled  breeds. — The  short-wooled  breeds  are  represented  by 
the  Merinos,  divided  into  the  American,  Delaine,  and  Ram- 
bouillet  families  in  the  United  States. — Among  the  medium- 
wooled  breeds  are  the  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Dorset  Horn, 
Hampshire,  Suffolk  Down,  and  Oxford. — The  principal  long- 
wooled  breeds  in  the  United  States  are  the  Cheviot,  Leicester, 
Cotswold,  and  Lincoln. 

The  hog  is  a  useful  animal  because  it  is  easily  cared  for, 
fattened,  and  sold. — Breeds  of  swine  are  described  as  large, 
medium,  and  small. — Among  the  large  breeds  of  swine  are  the 
Chester  White,  large  Yorkshire,  and  Tain  worth;  among  the 
medium  breeds,  the  Berkshire,  Cheshire,  Hampshire,  Victoria, 
Poland-China,  and  Duroc  Jersey;  among  the  small  breeds  the 
Essex,  Small  Yorkshire,  and  Suffolk. 

PROBLEMS 

i.  If  ten  lambs  gain  0.45  pound  each  per  day  for  90  days, 
what  is  the  total  gain? 

2.  If  the  selling  price  was  $4.75  per  cwt.,  what  was  the  total 
value  of  the  gain? 

3.  If  the  average  cost  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain  was  2.93 
cents,  what  was  the  profit  on  the  10  lambs? 

4.  These  lambs  were  one  year  old  at  the  end  of  the  90  days 
and  averaged  125  pounds  each.     What  were  they  worth? 

5.  The  average  weight  of  their  fleece  was  6.75  pounds,  worth 
11£  cents  unwashed.  What  was  the  total  value  of  the  wool 
and  the  lambs?1 

6.  Ten  pigs  just  weaned  were  fed  the  following  amount 
during  a  period  of  48  weeks :  Corn,  772  pounds  at  70  cents  per 
hundred;  shorts,  579  pounds  at  65  cents  per  hundred;  bone 
meal,  193  pounds  at  $1.50  per  hundred;    milk,  2,317  pounds 

1  These  examples  are  made  from  data  contained  in  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  96,  "Raising  Sheep  for  Mutton,"  and  refer  to  actual 
experiments  made  at  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  in  1900. 


SHEEP    AM)    SWINE  201 

at  15  cents  per  hundred.  The  total  gain  for  the  whole  lot  in 
S  weeks  was  533  pounds,  (a)  What  was  the  cost  of  the  feed 
for  the  eight  weeks?  (6)  What  was  the  cost  per  hundred  of 
gain?  (c)  What  was  the  gain  worth  at  $6.65  per  hundred? 
(d)  What  was  the  net  profit  on  the  10  pigs,  leaving  out  the 
value  of  the  work  and  interest  on  money  invested? 


CHAPTER  XIX 

POULTRY  AND  BEES 

147.  Benefits  of  Poultry  Raising. — Although  the 
keeping  of  poultry  is  on  the  increase,  yet  there  are  many 
farmers  who  do  not  realize  its  advantages.  Poultry 
raising  differs  from  many  other  farm  occupations  in  that 
most  of  the  work  is  light  and  may  make  pleasant  activity 
for  the  young  folks  or  even  for  the  women  on  the  farm. 
In  fact,  many  women  are  successful  poultry  raisers  and 
make  their  living  in  this  way.  Poultry  furnishes  for  the 
family  an  abundance  of  food  that  is  easily  prepared. 
The  raising  of  poultry  may  be  done  on  small  places,  as 
very  little  land  is  necessary.  Poultry  raising  can  be 
started  with  small  capital,  and  even  the  best-blooded 
stock  may  be  secured  by  small  outlay  for  eggs  of  pure- 
bred fowls.  Poultry  furnishes  a  variety  of  products,  as 
eggs  for  hatching  and  eating,  broilers,  and  adult  fowls  of 
various  kinds;  and  sometimes  the  feathers  are  a  source 
of  income.  All  these  products  are  easily  marketed. 
The  certainty  of  a  market  is  another  good  feature  of  the 
business,  and  at  Thanksgiving  and  Christmas  times  the 
poultry  raiser  usually  secures  fancy  prices.  On  the  farm, 
much  of  the  feed  for  poultry  costs  almost  nothing. 

Large  numbers  of  insects  are  eaten  by  the  poultry 
202 


204   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

as  they  range  over  the  farm.  This  is  especially  true  of 
turkeys,  which  eat  locusts  and  crickets  in  great  num- 
bers, besides  picking  up  the  larvae  of  many  injurious  in- 
sects. Where  geese  are  kept  the  sale  of  feathers  may 
be  an  item  of  special  importance.  It  is  customary  to 
" pluck"  the  geese  about  four  times  a  year.  The 
feathers  are  heated  and  cleaned  to  make  them  ready 
for  stuffing  pillows  and  other  articles.  The  feathers 
from  other  kinds  of  poultry  are  sometimes  saved,  but 
they  are  not  so  valuable. 

The  principal  domestic  fowls  are  chickens,  ducks, 
geese,  and  turkeys. 

148.  Breeds  of  Chickens. — The  breeds  of  chickens 
may  be  classified  as  egg  breeds,  meat  breeds,  and  general 
purpose  breeds.  The  principal  egg  breeds  are  Leghorn, 
Minorca,  Black  Spanish,  Blue  Andalusian,  Ancona,  and 
Houdan;  the  principal  meat  breeds,  Brahma,  Cochin, 
and  Langshan;  the  principal  general  purpose  breeds, 
Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte,  Rhode  Island  Red,  Java, 
and  Dominique.  Most  of  these  breeds  have  two  or 
more  varieties. 

The  egg  breeds  are  rather  small,  nervous,  and  lively. 
They  are  good  foragers  and  are  not  inclined  to  sit.  They 
like  to  run  a  good  deal  and  should  not  be  shut  up  too 
closely.  The  Leghorns  are  black,  white,  buff,  or  brown, 
and  have  large  combs  and  wattles.  The  Leghorns  are 
the  most  popular  of  the  egg  breeds.  They  lay  white 
eggs  and  many  of  them.  The  Minorcas  are  somewhat 
larger,  and  are  black  or  white.  They  have  large,  single 
combs.  They  lay  well  all  the  year  round,  and  are  fair 
table  fowls.     Houdans  have  a  topknot  of  feathers,  which 


Biured  Plymouth   Eloek.  White  Wyandotte. 

MlAHh     I'.l.l    !    M     "I      (    IIH    | 


206  AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

some  persons  admire.  They  have  five  toes  on  each  foot 
instead  of  four.  They  lay  well,  but  are  not  kept  to  any 
great  extent  except  for  fancy  purposes.  They  lay  white 
eggs. 

The  meat  breeds  are  less  trim  than  the  egg  breeds, 
are  not  so  active,  lay  fewer  eggs,  and  are  better  sitters. 
The  light  Brahma  is  white  with  some  black  markings, 
and  the  shanks  are  feathered.  There  is  also  a  dark 
variety.  In  addition  to  furnishing  good  meat  these 
birds  lay  well,  especially  in  winter.  They  are  hardy  and 
easily  raised.  The  Cochins  have  most  of  the  good  quali- 
ties of  the  Brahmas.  They  are  smaller,  but  are  hardy 
and  good  winter  layers.  There  are  four  varieties,  black, 
white,  buff,  and  partridge.  The  Buff  Cochin  is  the  most 
commonly  bred.  The  Langshan  is  bred  in  two  varieties, 
black  and  white.  It  has  long  shanks,  fewer  feathers, 
and  is  more  upstanding  than  the  others. 

The  general  purpose  breeds  combine  many  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  egg  and  the  meat  breeds,  so  that 
they  are  good  or  fair  layers  at  the  same  time  that  they 
furnish  a  good  supply  of  meat.  The  Plymouth  Rocks 
are  probably  the  most  popular  of  all  and  are  bred  in  three 
varieties,  Barred,  White,  and  Buff.  Perhaps  the  com- 
monest variety  is  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock.  The  color 
is  grayish  white  with  blue-black  lines  running  across  the 
feathers  throughout  the  whole  length.  The  fowls  are  of 
medium  size,  smooth,  and  compact.  They  make  good 
broilers  at  eight  or  twelve  weeks  of  age,  and  lay  the  year 
round.  The  Wyandottes  are  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
Plymouth  Rocks,  and  their  flesh  is  considered  by  some  to 
be  better.    This  breed  is  hardy  and  does  well  even  when 


POULTRY  207 

shut  up  in  a  yard.    There  are  several  varieties.     The 
other  general  purpose  breeds  are  less  popular  in  America. 

149.  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Turkeys. — Ducks  and  geese 
also  may  easily  be  raised  on  the  farm.  Ducks  especially 
require  little  care  as  they  are  not  so  liable  to  disease  as  are 
chickens,  nor  troubled  so  much  by  vermin,  and  much  of 
their  food  is  that  which  no  other  farm  animal  will  eat. 
Their  feed  should  be  given  in  a  softened  condition,  as 
they  do  not  have  a  crop  for  softening  it.  Water  plants, 
snails,  and  the  young  of  insects  are  the  natural  feed  of 
ducks.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  water  for  ducks  to 
swim  in,  and  many  persons  prefer  not  to  let  them  swim. 
There  are  many  breeds  of  ducks,  among  the  more  com- 
mon being  the  Rouen,  Pekin,  Indian  Runner,  and  Mus- 
covey.  The  more  popular  breeds  of  geese  are  the 
African,  Embden,  Toulouse,  Chinese,  and  Canadian. 

Turkeys  bring  the  highest  price  of  any  meat  from 
the  farm,  but  more  care  is  required  in  raising  them  than 
any  other  farm  animal.  There  is,  however,  a  sure  mar- 
ket for  them  at  certain  seasons. 

150.  Raising  and  Care  of  Poultry. — Like  everything 
else  on  the  farm,  poultry  needs  care  and  skill  in  raising 
if  it  is  to  be  made 
profitable.  Chick- 
ens should  have 
a  warm  shed  or 
house,  free  from 
drafts,    in    which 

to  sleep   and   to    ■' "    ""^^^HETOW^^LJ  '  «£ 
stay  in  bad  weath-  -  *  UkTa-    *  *" 

<l  .       They   should  Chicken  Coop  with  Sliding  Slats. 


208    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

also  have  a  scratching  shed  in  which  to  exercise  and  a 
yard  where  they  can  rim.     If  they  are  shut  up,  they 


Chicken  Coop  with  Inclosed  Run. 

must  be  provided  with  green  stuff  to   eat,  and  there 
must  be  gravel  and  sand  to  eat  and  dust  to  roll  in. 

On  farms  there  are  many  green  things  that  would  go 
to  waste  if  it  were  not  for  the  poultry :  unsalable  beets, 
potatoes,  carrots,  cabbage,  lettuce,  peas,  corn,  and  poor 

specimens  of  fruit  may  well 
be  fed  to  the  chickens.  In 
winter,  roots  and  tubers  are 
desirable. 

Turkeys  are  exceedingly 
frail  when  first  hatched,  and 
until  they  are  quite  large 
they  must  not  be  allowed 
to  go  out  and  get  wet  in 
the  early  dews.  At  first,  they  do  not  know  enough  to 
eat,  and  some  persons  put  a  chicken  in  with  the  brood 
to  furnish  an  example  for  the  young  turkeys.  Very 
often  food  is  stuffed  into  their  mouths.  Turkeys  wan- 
der far  away,  especially  to  nest  and  rear  their  young; 
fence  corners  should  be  screened  off  to  tempt  them  to 
stay  nearer  home.     As  the  young  get  older  and  stronger, 


Drinking  Fountain  Made  of 
Can. 


BEES  209 

thc\'  must  have  a  large  tract  to  feed  on,  and  there- 
fore they  cannot  be  raised  in  towns  and  villages  as 
chickens  can. 

151.  Bees. — Bees  get  all  of  their  food  free  of  expense 
to  the  farmer;  and  though  bees  require  considerable  care, 
it  is  generally  not  expended  in  feeding  them.  Among 
the  flowers  on  which  bees  feed  may  be  mentioned  the 
clovers,  basswood,  buckwheat,  locust,  milkweed,  daisies, 
and  other  composite  flowers,  blossoms  of  fruit  trees  and 
shrubs,  and  cucumber  blossoms  in  the  vicinity  of  pickle 
factories,  especially  for  fall  feeding.  Horse  mint  is  an 
important  bee  flower  in  some  sections. 


b 

BBSS.      '/,  quern;  b,  drone;  C,  worker. 

Each  colony  of  bees  contains  a  queen,  workers,  and 
drones.  The  queen  lays  all  the  eggs.  The;  workers  are 
imperfectly  developed  females,  and  gather  honey,  furnish 
wax  and  l>eebread,  make  the  combs  and  fill  them,  and 
feed  the  young  bees.  The  drones  are  the  male  bees  and 
do  no  work. 

The  queen  lays  one  egg  in  each  cell  and  out  of  it 

hatches  the  young  bee  or  larva.    This  little  insect  ap- 

like  a  worm,  and  gets  only  what  is  fed  to  it.   After 

a  few  days,  the  cell  is  sealed  up  and  the  larva  spins  a 

silken   covering   or   cocoon   about   itself.     Then   after 


210    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

about  three  weeks  it  comes  out,  an  insect  with  wings. 
The  queen  lays  her  eggs  in  three  kinds  of  cells.  Out 
of  the  smallest  cells  come  the  workers.  From  the  next 
size  come  the  drones,  and  in  a  few  of  the  largest  cells 
are  laid  the  eggs  that  are  to  produce  queens. 

At  certain  times  the  bees,  or  most  of  them,  in  com- 
pany with  the  queen,  having  their  sacs  well  filled  with 
honey,  rush  forth  from  their  hive  and  "  swarm,"  as  we  call 

it.  This  swarming 
may  be  caused  by 
the  development 
of  a  new  queen 
in  the  hive  or  by 
an  oversupply  of 
food  so  that  there 
is  no  more  space 
for  them  to  fill, 
or  by  other  causes 

Cells  Containing  Eggs,  Larvae,  and  Pup^j     we     q^q     no^     fully 

of  the  Honeybee.    The  lower  large,  irregu- 

lar  cells  are  queen  cells.  (After  Benton.)  Understand.  Al- 
ter circling  about 
in  the  air  for  a  while  they  generally  settle  on  a  branch 
of  a  tree  or  brush  near  by.  The  bee  keeper  must  then 
get  them  to  settle  in  a  new  hive.  Sometimes  the  hive 
is  carried  to  the  tree  on  which  the  bees  have  alighted, 
and  if  they  are  low  enough  they  can  be  gently  brushed 
in.  More  frequently  the  branch  is  cut  off  and  carried 
to  the  hive,  where  the  bees  are  gently  shaken  to  the 
ground  before  the  new  hive  and  they  find  their  way 
in.  If,  then,  a  little  new  or  unfilled  comb  is  found  in  the 
hive,  something  for  them  to  go  to  work  on,  they  will 


BEES  211 

settle  down  and  make  it  their  home,  and  get  to  work. 
If  bees  are  to  be  kept  out  of  mischief,  they  must  be  kept 
busy.  A  modern  way  is  to  keep  the  queen's  wings  clipped 
so  that  she  cannot  fly  away  and  will  remain  in  the  hive 
where  she  may  easily  be  found  and  placed  in  the  new 
hive.  Then  she  is  confined  in  a  queen  cage  and  the 
swarm  that  has  come  from  the  old  hive  clusters  there. 
Some  apiarists  do  not  allow  their  bees  to  swarm,  but 
either  place  additions  on  the  hives  to  give  more  room  or 
divide  the  swarm.  In  the  hives  are  placed  movable 
frames  in  which  the  bees  place  their  comb  and  fill  it  with 
honey.  These  frames  are  then  removed  and  others  put 
in  their  places.  Some  apiarists  sell  the  honey  in  the 
comb  and  others  extract  it.  Shallow  hives  are  of  the 
Danzenbaker  or  Heddon  type,  while  the  deep  hive  is  of 
the  Langstroth  type,  holding  perhaps  ten  frames. 

When  bees  are  carefully  managed  the  yield  of  honey 
will  average  fifty  to  one  hundred  pounds  a  year  from 
each  hive.  If  the  season  is  poor,  owing 
to  dry  weather  or  other  causes,  or  if 
the  swarm  is  small,  the  bees  may  not 
make  enough  honey  to  carry  them- 
selves over  winter,  and  the  bee  keeper 
has  none.  Professor  Hodge  reports  a 
hive  that  gained  thirty-two  pounds 
in  weight  in  a  single  day  during  the 

flow    Of    baSSWOOd    nectar.      There    is     Diagram     Showing 
.  .         ,i  .  i  •  i  a    Bee    Getting 

much    water    in    this    nectar    which        honey. 
must    be    evaporated    before    it   be- 
comes honey.    Bees  should  yield  a  profit  of  five  to  ten 
dollars  a  year  for  each  swarm,  but  honey,  like  many 


212   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

other  articles  produced  on  the  farm,  does  not  always  come 
up  to  our  expectations. 

SUMMARY 

Poultry  raising  is  mostly  light  work  and  yields  good  profits 
with  small  outlay  when  properly  conducted.  The  work  may  be 
done  on  a  small  area.  There  is  no  farm  industry,  however,  more 
likely  to  be  a  failure  in  the  hands  of  the  careless  or  untrained. — 
Poultry  yields  a  variety  of  products  for  which  there  is  always  a 
good  market. 

The  breeds  of  chickens  are  divided  into  egg  breeds,  meat 
breeds,  and  general  purpose  breeds. — The  principal  breed  of  the 
first  group  is  the  Leghorn;  of  the  second,  the  Brahma;  and  of  the 
third,  the  Plymouth  Rock. 

Ducks  and  geese  are  easily  raised  and  feed  on  many  things 
that  other  animals  do  not  eat. 

Chickens  should  have  a  warm  shed  for  shelter  and  a  sunny 
yard  for  scratching.  They  must  be  provided  with  green  stuff 
and  with  grit  to  grind  their  food. 

Turkeys  require  much  care  when  young  and  often  have  to 
be  taught  to  eat. 

Bees  are  profitable  and  of  little  expense  on  the  farm.  The 
honey  stored  by  them  is  a  good  commercial  product. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

i.  In  how  many  ways  may  poultry  be  valuable  on  a  farm? 

2.  Why  are  winter  layers  the  most  valuable  hens? 

3.  How  would  you  tell  a  Minorca  from  a  Houdan? 

4.  Why  are  ducks  profitable  fowls  to  raise? 

5.  In  what  respect  do  bees  differ  from  the  animals  on  the 
farm? 

6.  If  eggs  of  a  pure-bred  hen  for  setting  cost  $1.50  per 
dozen,  and  common  eggs  15  cents  a  dozen,  and  nine  eggs  of  each 
lot  hatch,  how  much  more  does  each  chick  of  the  blooded  stock 
cost  than  of  the  common? 


POULTRY    AND    BEES  213 

7.  If  a  common  pullet  is  worth  45  cents  and  a  pure-bred 
pullet  75  cents,  do  the  better  eggs  pay?     How  much? 

8.  How  many  more  eggs  per  year  at  15  cents  per  dozen 
would  the  pure-bred  hen  have  to  lay  to  pay  the  extra  cost  of 
the  egg  from  which  she  was  hatched? 

9.  What  is  the  value  of  a  flock  of  25  turkeys  that  dress  on 
an  average  13  pounds  each,  at  20  cents  a  pound? 

10.  A  merchant  "candled"  eggs  by  looking  through  each  egg 
toward  a  light  and  found  two  bad  ones  in  each  dozen,  which  were 
rejected.  If  the  eggs  that  were  not  "  candled  "  sold  for  20  cents 
a  dozen,  how  much  must  be  charged  for  the  "  candled ,;  ones  to 
receive  the  same  profit? 

n.  Why  would  it  be  more  just  to  sell  eggs  by  the  pound  than 
it  is  to  sell  them  by  the  dozen? 

12.  What  are  the  advantages  in  hatching  chickens  early  in 
the  season? 

13-  What  is  the  profit  from  a  flock  of  15  hens,  if  each  hen 
lays  during  the  year  200  eggs  selling  at  an  average  price  of  20 
cents  a  dozen,  and  if  each  hen  eats  one  dollar's  worth  of  feed  per 
year? 

14-  If  a  hive  of  bees  that  costs  $5  swarms  once  and  makes  30 
pounds  of  honey  at  15  cents  per  pound,  what  is  the  profit? 

15.  On  the  first  of  May  a  hive  of  bees  contains  20,000  im- 
mature and  mature  workers.  If  the  queen  lays  2,000  eggs  each 
day  during  the  month  of  May  and  1,500  workers  die  each  day, 
how  many  workers  will  the  hive  contain  on  the  first  of  June? 

16.  Why  is  a  swarm  of  bees  in  May  worth  more  than  a 
swarm  in  August? 


15 


CHAPTER  XX 
PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING  AND  CARE   OF  ANIMALS 

152.  Importance  of  Animal  Food.— The  animals  on 
the  farm  are  kept  for  certain  definite  purposes,  as  the 
horse  for  farm  labor,  the  cow  for  milk  or  beef,  the  hen 
for  eggs.  We  give  them  food  and  care  in  order  that  the 
results  or  products  may  be  good.  We  might  liken  the 
animal  to  a  machine  by  means  of  which  the  farmer  gets 
certain  products.  The  feed  is  the  raw  material  from 
which  the  products  are  manufactured. 

The  products  of  the  animal  machine  are:  (1)  heat; 
(2)  new  material  to  repair  waste;  (3)  new  material  for 
growth;  (4)  eggs  or  young;  (5)  extra  fat  or  other  tissue 
and  secretions ;  (6)  energy  in  the  form  of  muscular  labor. 

The  raw  material,  as  we  have  said,  is  the  feed  of  the 
animal.  In  the  case  of  milk,  eggs,  and  flesh,  the  product 
of  one  animal  may  be  the  raw  material  of  another;  and 
all  animals  use  the  products  of  plants  as  raw  materials. 
The  product  of  the  corn  plant  is  grains  of  corn,  which 
are  the  raw  material  for  the  cow;  the  product  of  the  cow 
is  milk,  which  is  the  raw  material  for  the  calf;  and  the 
calf,  in  turn,  may  become  the  raw  material  for  human 
food  in  the  form  of  veal. 

The  most  important  product,  as  far  as  the  welfare  of 
214 


FEEDING    AND    CARE    OF    ANIMALS   215 

the  animal  is  concerned,  is  animal  heat  or  energy  on 
which  all  other  life  processes  depend.  When  this  is  sup- 
plied the  other  purposes  of  the  food  may  be  accomplished. 
This  means  that  the  animal  must  be  given  more  than 
just  enough  food  to  keep  it  alive  if  we  want  it  to  keep  up 
in  flesh,  to  grow,  to  produce  wool,  eggs  or  young,  to  give 
milk,  or  to  do  work. 

Careful  experiments  have  shown  that  it  is  a  wasteful 
practice  to  keep  colts  and  other  young  stock  out  of 


k'riQjiiwr.Jj^riH 

■ 

*tm—                                             1  VWjl 

Model  Cow  Barn,  Showing  Tik-up  with  Cement  Floor  and  Tiled 
Walls  and  Ceilings. 


doors  in  cold  winters.  It  is  useless  to  expect  hens  to 
lay  eggs,  or  cows  to  give  large  quantities  of  milk,  when 
suffering  from  cold.  It  may  even  pay  to  take  the  chill 
off  the  drinking  water  in  cold  weather.  Exposure  to 
cold  demands  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  animal's 
feed  be  used  merely  as  fuel,  to  keep  up  animal  heat;  and 
unnecessary  exposure  lessens  the  use  that  animals  can 


216    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

make  of  their  food  for  other  purposes  than  body  heat. 
Since  energy  is  one  of  the  important  products  to  be 
gained  from  feed,  it  follows  that  an  animal  that  works 
hard  must  have  more  feed  than  one  that  is  idle. 

153.  Classes  of  Feeds. — It  was  stated  in  Chapter  VII 
that  three  of  the  constituents  of  plants  are  protein,  carbo- 
hydrates, and  fat.  All  of  the  protein  compounds  con- 
tain nitrogen.  They  are  especially  necessary  in  the 
formation  of  bones  and  muscles.  The  fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates are  useful  in  supplying  the  body  heat  and 
energy,  and  in  storing  up  reserve  materials  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  most  important  carbohydrates  are  starch, 
sugar,  and  fibers  (Sec.  56).  Sugar  and  starch  are  easily 
digested,  but  fibers  are  less  easily  digested. 

Nearly  all  the  feed  of  animals  is  classified  in  these 
three  groups.  Before  anyone  can  use  feeds  intelligently, 
he  must  be  able  to  tell  into  which  class  any  feed  falls. 
For  example,  corn  contains  ten  per  cent  protein,  five 
per  cent  oil,  and  seventy  per  cent  carbohydrate,  mostly 
starch, and  is  classified  as  a  carbohydrate,  since  the  carbo- 
hydrate compounds  so  greatly  predominate.  In  making 
up  a  ration  intelligently,  therefore,  the  stockman  must 
know  how  to  choose  his  foods  to  get  a  proper  balance 
with  the  protein  requirements  of  the  animal.  (Com- 
plete tables  showing  the  composition  of  feeding  stuffs 
will  be  found  in  the  Appendix.) 

The  following  is  an  account  of  the  feed  of  "  Yeksa  Sunbeam  w 
(Sec.  120)  during  the  test. 

During  grazing  season,  excellent  blue  grass  and  clover  pas- 
ture was  supplied.  In  the  late  fall  and  spring  of  the  year  this 
was  supplemented  with  some  clover  hay  as  roughage.     In  July 


FEEDING    AND    CARE    OF    ANIMALS   217 

and  August,  1905,  during  hot  weather  and  fly  time,  oats  and 
peas  in  the  green  state  were  fed  as  soiling  crop,  followed,  in 
August  and  September,  by  green  corn.  During  the  winter 
season,  while  stabled,  was  fed  from  25  to  30  pounds  of  corn 
silage  made  of  corn  that  was  planted  so  close  together  that 
the  ears  did  not  develop ;  also  good  clover  hay  and  part  of  the 
time  some  alfalfa  hay.  Off  and  on  during  the  winter  she  was 
fed  some  rutabagas. 

The  grain  feed  consisted  of  a  mixture  of  grain  made  up  of 
four  parts  wheat  bran,  two  parts  ground  oats,  two  parts  gluten 
feed,  one  part  Old  Process  oil  meal.  During  the  months  of 
January,  February,  and  March  there  was  added  to  this  mix- 
ture one  part  of  corn  meal.  During  the  months  of  October, 
November,  and  December,  1904,  she  was  fed  15  pounds  a  day 
of  this  grain  mixture.  During  January,  February,  March,  and 
April  14  pounds  a  day  were  fed;  during  May,  12  pounds;  and 
during  June  the  quantity  varied  from  12  pounds  to  6  pounds. 
For  .July,  August,  and  September  she  was  fed  2  to  10  pounds 
of  this  grain  mixture. 

154.  Balanced  Rations  and  the  Nutritive  Ratio. — All 
animals  require  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  oil  or  fats 
in  the  proper  proportion;  and  skill  in  feeding  consists  in 
part  in  giving  the  feed  in  that  proportion.  A  ration  is 
a  certain  fixed  portion  of  food  dealt  out  to  a  person  or 
an  animal.  When  an  animal's  feed  has  the  proper  pro- 
portion of  these  three  classes  of  foods  for  the  purpose 
intended,  it  is  said  to  be  a  balanced  ration. 

In  balancing  a  ration  and  finding  the  nutritive  ratio, 
the  proportion  of  protein  is  compared  with  the  propor- 
tion of  carbohydrate  and  fats  combined,  and  this  com- 
parison is  generally  written  thus:  1:7,  1 :  12,  indicating 
that  there  is  one  pari  of  digestible  protein  to  seven,  or 
one  pari  to  twelve  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fats, 


218   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

or  "  carbohydrate  equivalents."  By  carbohydrate  equiv- 
alent is  meant  the  carbohydrate  (starch,  sugar,  and 
fiber)  and  fat  expressed  as  an  equivalent  value  of  carbo- 
hydrate as  an  animal  food.  Fat  is  worth  2%  times  as 
much  as  carbohydrate.  Thus,  8  pounds  of  fat  would 
be  worth  2%  times  8,  or  18  pounds  of  carbohydrate. 
If  a  ration  had  12  pounds  of  starch  and  4  pounds  of 
fat,  the  carbohydrate  equivalent  would  be  (2J4  X  4)  + 
12,  or  21. 

If  this  ration  had  also  2  pounds  of  protein,  the 
nutritive  ratio,  that  is,  the  ratio  between  the  protein 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  carbohydrate  equivalents  on  the 
other,  would  be  2 :  21  or  1 :  10.5.  This  would  be  called  a 
"wide"  ratio  because  there  is  such  a  predominance  of 
carbohydrates;  1 : 5  would  be  called  a  " narrow  "  ratio. 

For  horses  at  work,  the  nutritive  ratio  should  be 
about  1 : 6  to  1:7,  the  former  being  for  heavy  work.  For 
milch  cows,  the  average  of  128  Wisconsin  herds  is  given 
as  1 : 6.9.  This  is  generally  considered  rather  wide,  and  a 
ratio  of  about  1 : 5.4  is  preferred  for  milch  cows  by  many 
authorities.  Wool  sheep  require  a  ration  about  1 :  8  or 
1:9.  Similar  standards  are  set  for  other  classes  of 
animals.     (See  Table  IV,  Appendix.) 

The  table  on  page  250  of  the  Appendix  gives  the 
amounts  of  the  different  classes  of  feed  constituents  in 
various  fodders.  The  last  column  of  Table  VI  gives 
numbers  representing  the  energy  value  (that  is,  the 
value  in  producing  energy)  of  feeding  stuffs  in  calories.1 

1 A  calorie  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  warm  one  pound  of 
water  four  degrees  Fahrenheit;  or  in  the  metric  system,  one  kilo- 
gram of  water  one  degree  centigrade.     Such  a  unit  as  this  has  been 


FEEDING    AND    CARE    OF    ANIMALS    219 


In  calculating  the  energy  value  of  feeds,  it  is  customary 
to  consider  that  one  pound  of  protein  or  carbohydrate 
produces  1,860  calories,  and  that  one  pound  of  fat  pro- 
duces 4,220  calories. 

The  following  may  be  taken  as  a  sample  ration  for 
a  900-pound  dairy  cow: 

12 . 5  pounds  timothy  hay, 
7.5       ' '       corn  fodder, 

3  ' '       corn  meal, 

4  ' '       wheat  bran, 

2  ' '       cotton-seed  meal. 

By  reference  to  Table  VII  of  the  Appendix  the  fol- 
lowing results  may  be  obtained: 


Total  dry 
matter. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc.1 

12*5  pounds  timothy  hay 

10.9 
4.3 
2.6 
3.5 
1.8 

0.35 
0.19 
0.19 
0.48 
0.80 

5.8 

7J5  pounds  corn  fodder,  dry 

3  pounds  corn  meal 

4  pounds  wheat  bran 

2.7 
2.1 
1.8 

2  pounds  cotton-seed  meal 

0.8 

Total  pounds 

23.1 

2.01 

13  2 

The  other  7.89  pounds  of  dry  matter  is  indigestible. 
The  nutritive  ratio  of  this  ration  is  found  by  dividing 
2.01  and  13.2  by  2.01.  The  quotients  are  1:6.5.  The 
number  of  calories  found  by  multiplying  2.01 4- 13.2 
by  1860  is  28,290. 

found  the  most  convenient  with  which  to  measure  energy.  It  is 
becoming  customary  to  use  the  word  therm  to  denote  1,000  calories, 
as  it  allows  the  usr  of  smaller  numljers. 

lThe  "etc."  in  the  table  refers  to  the  fat  which  has  been  re- 
duced to  carbohydrate  equivalent  by  being  multiplied  by  2^. 


220    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


By  substituting  red-clover  hay  for  the  timothy,  there, 
would  be  a  gain  of  0.54  pound  of  protein,  making  the 
protein  2.55  pounds,  with  a  loss  of  only  half  a  pound  of 
carbohydrates.  This  change  would  make  the  ration 
conform  more  nearly  to  the  Wolff-Lehman  standards  as 
shown  by  Table  IV  in  the  Appendix. 

155.  Kinds  of  Feeding  Stuffs. — For  horses  and  cattle 
there  is  a  great  variety  of  feeding  stuffs,  roughly  di- 
vided into  green  fodders,  silage,  hay,  and  dry  coarse 

fodder,  roots  and  tubers, 
grains  and  other  seeds, 
mill  products,  and  by-prod- 
ucts. Only  a  few  kinds  will 
be  mentioned  under  each 
head. 

Green  fodders  consist  of 
corn,  rye  fodder,  oat  fodder, 
oat  grass,  and  the  various 
well-known  grasses,  as  red- 
top,  orchard  grass,  timo- 
thy, alfalfa,  and  the  clovers. 
Ensilage  or  silage  (Sec.  104) 
may  be  of  corn  sorghum,  soy 
beans,  red  clover,  cowpeas,  or 
certain  other  crops.  Coarse 
fodder  or  "roughage"  con- 
sists of  dried  corn  fodder,  bar- 
ley hay,  oat  hay,  and  all  the  common  forms  of  grass  hay, 
and  straw.  Roots  and  tubers  may  be  turnips,  car- 
rots, beets,  or  potatoes.  The  grains  commonly  used  are 
corn,  barley,  buckwheat,  peas,  oats,  rye,  and  wheat. 


A  Silo. 


FEEDING    AND    CARE    OF    ANIMALS   221 

Mill  products  are  corn  meal,  corn  and  cob  meal, 
ground  corn,  oats,  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  rye 
bran,  buckwheat  bran,  and  buckwheat  middlings.  By- 
products are  barley  screenings,  shorts,  millet  sprouts, 
brewer's  grains,  gluten  feeds,  hominy  chop,  linseed  meal, 
cotton-seed  hulls,  meal,  and  the  like.  Other  miscella- 
neous feeds  are  cabbage,  sugar-beet  pulp,  beet  molasses, 
apple  pomace,  skimmed  milk,  and  the  like. 

It  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  Table  V  of  feeding  stuffs 
in  the  Appendix  that  the  grains  have  the  largest  amount 
of  feed  value  per  pound.  For  this  reason  they  are  some- 
times called  concentrates.  The  feed  is  so  concentrated 
that  it  is  necessary  to  feed  roughage,  as  hay  or  straw, 
because  the  grains  are  not  bulky  enough  to  enable  the 
animal's  digestive  apparatus  to  do  its  work  property. 

The  value  of  feed  for  heating  the  animal  and  for 
giving  strength  or  energy  to  work  is  measured  in  calories. 
A  horse  at  moderate  work  requires  about  27,600  calories. 
In  figuring  a  ration,  it  is  customary  to  compute  the 
necessary  protein  and  the  number  of  calories.  Let  us 
figure  a  ration  for  a  1,000-pound  horse  at  moderate 
work.  According  to  Table  IV  such  a  horse  requires  2 
pounds  of  protein  and  27,600  calories.  (Found  by 
multiplying  the  carbohydrate  value  of  the  ration 
(14.85)  by  1860.)    Try 

12^  pounds  of  timothy  hay, 
8       "      of  oats, 

1         ' '       of  com. 

From  the  convenience  table  on  page  254  we  get  the 
following  contents: 


222    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


Protein, 

Carbohydrate,  etc. 

12^  pounds  timothy  hay 

8        "         oats 

.35 
.74 
.25 

5.8 
4.6 

4        "         corn 

2.9 

Total 

1.34 

13.3 

The  nutritive  ratio,  found  by  dividing  each  quantity 
by  1.34,  is  1:10,  nearly.  Multiplying  the  sum  of  the 
proteins  and  carbohydrates,  etc.,  14.64  by  1,860,  we  get 
27,230,  the  number  of  calories  of  energy.  The  amount 
of  protein  is  slightly  under  that  given  in  the  table,  but 
is  more  nearly  that  actually  fed  to  horses  in  the  United 
States. 

156.  Profit  and  Loss  in  Feeding. — The  main  object  in 
raising  stock  on  the  farm  is  to  make  money.  All  feeding 
should  be  done  with  the  question  in  mind,  "How  much 
more  will  this  feed  be  worth  when  changed  into  flesh  or 
milk  or  other  products,  than  it  is  now  worth  in  its  present 
shape  ?  "  If  a  costly  feed  is  used  when  a  cheaper  would 
do  just  as  well,  there  will  be  less  profit,  and  perhaps  a 
loss.  The  farmer  should  find  out  just  how  much  and 
what  is  profitable  to  feed,  and  should  use  that  and  no 
more.  Feeding  tables  based  on  thousands  of  experi- 
ments have  been  published,  extracts  from  which  will  be 
found  in  the  Appendix. 

It  will  be  seen  from  Table  IV  that  the  feed  of  oxen 
at  rest  in  the  stall  should  have  a  wide  ration,  1:11,  while 
that  of  milch  cows  should  have  a  narrower  ration,  1:6; 
and  horses  on  light  work  1 :  7,  and  on  heavy  work  1 :  6. 

It  is  to  be  understood  that  many  farmers  feed  stock 
without  knowing  these  things.    Thousands  of  farmers 


FEEDING    AND    CARE    OF    ANIMALS    223 

raised  and  fed  stock  successfully,  learning  by  their  own 
mistakes  and  experience,  before  these  tables  were  made 
out.  So  they  mowed  with  a  scythe  and  cut  grain  with  a 
sickle.  But  in  the  matter  of  feeding,  just  as  in  mowing 
and  reaping,  it  is  better  and  cheaper  to  learn  by  other 
persons'  experience  and  progress,  and  the  farmer  should 
be  glad  to  learn  all  he  can  about  economical  feeding  of  his 
stock,  for  whatever  purpose.  He  does  not  wish  to  make 
the  horse  fat  or  the  hog  active;  he  does  want,  with  the 
least  expenditure  of  feed,  to  make  the  hog  fat  and  the 
horse  strong.  It  is  well  for  a  feeder  of  animals  to  know 
how  much  is  being  fed.  Many  persons  feed  twenty  or 
thirty  pounds  of  hay  to  a  horse  besides  his  grain,  when 
ten  or  twelve  is  all  that  is  necessary.  It  is  well  for  one 
to  know  how  near  the  standard  he  is  feeding. 

If  the  pupil  lives  on  a  farm  he  should  conduct  a  series  of 
experiments  in  feeding.  He  may  figure  out  a  balanced  ration 
for  certain  animals.  He  should  weigh  the  feed,  for  he  should  at 
least  learn  the  quantity  being  fed.  If  it  is  possible  to  weigh 
some  animals  at  intervals,  much  interest  and  profit  may  arise 
from  the  work. 

157.  Care  of  Animals. — Nearly  as  much  depends  on 
the  proper  care  of  farm  animals  as  on  the  proper  amount 
of  feed.  As  was  said  at  the  beginning  of  the  chapter, 
the  first  use  of  feed  in  cold  weather  is  to  keep  the  ani- 
mal warm.  If  an  animal  is  not  properly  protected  and 
kept  warm,  the  feed  that  should  go  to  lay  on  fat,  or  in- 
crease the  size  and  strength  of  the  animal,  or  produce  a 
product,  is  burned  up  for  fuel.  Many  persons  in  the 
Northern  States  let  colts  run  out  all  winter,  but  it  has 
been  found  that  such  colts  suffer  in  size  and  vigor. 


224   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGKICULTURE 

Animals  should  also  be  kept  clean.  In  some 
states  there  are  now  laws  forbidding  the  sale  of  milk 
from  filthy  stables.  Almost  everyone  curries  horses; 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  currying  does  cattle  just  as  much 
good. 

There  should  be  a  proper  allowance  of  room  and 
fresh  air  for  animals.  A  great  many  barns  are  too  open 
and  subject  to  draughts,  while  in  others  the  stock  is 


Tie-up  with  Dirty,  Defective  Floor,  Ceiling,  and  Back. 

crowded  and  the  tie-ups  are  filthy  and  poorly  ventilated. 
Animals  need  exercise  also.  Some  years  ago  a  Wis- 
consin farmer  built  a  barn  with  the  stables  in  the  base- 
ment, expecting  to  keep  the  cattle  there  all  the  year 
round.  He  fed  shredded  corn.  Finding  after  a  few 
months'  trial  that  most  of  his  cows  suffered  from  foot-rot, 
he  decided  to  observe  and  follow  nature  a  little  more 
closely. 


FEEDING    AND    CAKE    OF    ANIMALS    225 


SUMMARY 

The  animal  uses  feed  for  maintenance,  to  produce  heat,  repair 
waste,  and  build  up  tissue.  When  these  are  satisfied,  the  surplus 
may  be  turned  into  work  or  production. 

Feed  may  be  classed  as  of  three  kinds  according  to  its  nature : 
protein,  fats,  and  carbohydrates. — Fats  and  carbohydrates 
produce  fat  and  energy,  and  protein  produces  muscle  and  bone. 

An  animal  should  have  a  certain  amount  of  each  kind  of 
feed.  The  proper  amount  is  called  a  balanced  ration. — A  bal- 
anced ration  may  be  found  from  various  kinds  of  feeding  stuffs. 

Animals  are  producers  of  energy.  If  energy  is  lost,  there  is 
less  profit  from  the  animal.  The  source  of  energy  is  the  feed  the 
animal  eats.  If  the  animal  is  not  cared  for  or  protected  from 
the  cold,  energy  is  wasted. — The  farmer  should  strive  to  save 
the  energy  produced  by  the  animal. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  Explain  why  an  animal  may  properly  be  called  a  machine. 

2.  What  are  the  raw  materials  of  this  "machine"? 

3.  Name  some  of  the  finished  products. 

4.  Why  should  a  cow  be  kept  comfortably  warm? 

5.  What  are  the  three  classes  of  feeds? 

6.  What  is  a  balanced  ration?  Why  is  it  important  that 
an  animal  should  have  a  balanced  ration? 

7.  Which  is  the  wider  nutritive  ratio,  1:6  or  1:12?  What 
do  these  numbers  mean? 

8.  Why  is  a  bundled  pounds  of  corn  worth  more  than  a 

hundred  pounds  of  green  fodder? 

9.  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  <>f  the  following  nit  ion  for  a 
horse?  7.5  pounds  mixed  hay,  8  pounds  oats,  4  pounds  corn  and 
cob. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

GOOD   ROADS.— FORESTRY.— HOME  AND  SCHOOL 
GROUNDS 

158.  The  Farmer's  Interest  in  Good  Roads. — One  of 

the  most  important  things  in  connection  with  life  on  the 
farm  is  a  good  road.  On  the  road  the  farmer  must 
transport  his  produce  to  market,  draw  back  his  supplies, 
and  travel  to  mill  and  to  "  meeting."  Nothing  contrib- 
utes so  surely  to  dislike  of  country  and  farm  life  as 
poor  roads.  The  farmer  plodding  along  in  the  mud, 
his  team  barely  able  to  drag  the  load  with  harness, 
horses,  and  wagon  a  mass  of  dirt,  pictures  to  himself  his 
more  fortunate  brother  in  the  city,  using  paved  streets 
and  cement  walks.  He  decides  that  he  has  had  enough 
of  farming,  sells  or  rents  the  farm,  and  departs  for  the 
city.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge  the  picture;  it  is  too 
well  known.  During  many  days  or  even  weeks  of  the 
year,  the  farmer  and  his  family  are  shut  away  from 
town,  from  church,  society,  and  entertainment.  A 
large  part  of  the  trouble  comes  from  the  fact  that  most 
of  the  work  on  the  roads  has  had  only  temporary  effects. 

159.  How  to  Make  and  Keep  a  Road  Good. — Scrap- 
ing a  lot  of  sand  and  dirt  and  sod  and  rubbish  into  the 
road  and  leaving  it  for  the  passing  teams  to  flatten  never 
did,  and  never  will,  make  a  good  road.     If  a  large  part 

226 


GOOD    ROADS  227 

of  the  work  and  money  spent  in  the  last  twenty-five 
years  in  repairing  and  making  dirt  roads  had  been  ex- 
pended in  doing  a  little  each  year  and  doing  it  well, 
every  county  in  the  Northern  States  might  to-day  have 
had  its  main  thoroughfares  in  good  condition.  Much 
of  the  work  done  has  really  accomplished  no  good  what- 
ever to  the  roads,  and  they  are  often  worse  after  than 
before  repairs.  The  work  on  roads  should  consist  in 
making  good  gravel  or  stone  roads  which  are  permanent 
in  their  nature. 

There  are  certain  foundation  principles  that  should 
govern  road-making  and  maintenance.  The  man  who 
oversees  the  work  should  have  scientific  knowledge  of 


A  Gravel  Road  Properly  Crowned,  with  Side  Ditches  and  Tile 

Drains. 

how  to  make  and  maintain  a  good  road.  The  material 
of  the  road  should  be  graded,  with  the  coarsest  at  the 
bottom;  and  the  successive  layers  should  be  well  rolled, 
compacted,  and  filled  in  with  finer  material.  The  road 
should  be  well  drained. 

But  most  important  of  all  is  to  have  a  few  workmen 
constantly  making  repairs.  The  railroad  companies 
have  learned  that  the  only  way  to  keep  their  roads  in 


228   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

good  repair  is  to  have  a  " section  gang"  with  a  com- 
petent boss  constantly  at  work.  Nothing  made  by  man 
will  last  forever  without  attention  and  renewal,  and  a 
road  is  no  exception.  When  a  road  shows  signs  of 
becoming  rutty,  the  material  should  be  hoed  or  dragged 
into  the  ruts  A  half-day's  work  at  the  right  time  will 
save  several  days'  work  later  and  may  keep  the  road 
in  good  condition.  The  roadmaster  should  make  it  a 
particular  point  to  examine  the  road  in  rainy  weather. 
He  should  notice  where  the  water  collects  and  should  fill 
in  such  places  as  soon  as  the  conditions  permit. 

The  material  of  which  the  roads  are  made  will  de- 
pend on  the  locality  and  the  financial  condition  of  the 
inhabitants.  Where  it  is  possible,  crushed  stone  should 
be  used  and  a  macadamized  road  built.  In  some  states, 
the  state  assists  and  frequently  builds  a  sample  stretch 
of  road  as  a  model.  Many  miles  of  such  roads  have 
been  built  in  Massachusetts.  Where  it  is  not  possible 
to  build  stone  roads,  gravel  may  be  used.  There  is  a 
great  difference  in  gravel  roads,  according  to  the  kind  of 
gravel  and  the  plan  of  construction. 

Much  improvement  might  be  made  in  roads  with 
little  trouble  if  country  boys  would  form  the  habit  of 
kicking  or  throwing  loose  stones  out  of  the  road.  These 
loose,  round  cobblestones  are  a  great  nuisance  in  roads. 
Another  way  to  keep  roads  good  is  by  using  only  wide- 
tired  wagons  for  heavy  work  and  avoid  driving  in  a  single 
track. 

The  sides  of  the  road  should  also  receive  attention; 
the  brush  and  weeds  should  be  cut  and  burned,  not  left 
as  a  harboring  place  for  insects.     The  large  stones  should 


FORESTRY  229 

be  removed,  so  that  the  roadside  may  be  used  for  sleds 
and  cutters  when  the  snow  melts  or  blowrs  off  the  main 
part  of  the  road.  Attention  should  be  given  to  the 
drainage  so  as  to  avoid  pools  of  standing  water  which 
keep  the  road  from  drying  out  in  spring  and  after  rains. 
Fences  should  be  kept  in  repair. 

Acquire  the  habit  of  observing  the  roads  traveled  and  of 
noting  the  condition  and  reasons  for  the  good  or  bad  condition. 

1 60.  The  Purpose  of  Forestry. — Forestry  is  the  art  of 
so  managing  growing  timber  that  it  may  be  used  con- 
tinuously  for  the  needs  of  man.  It  includes  not  only 
raising  and  care,  but  the  handling  of  the  grown  crop,  its 
product,  and  waste  material.  When  the  first  settlers 
came  to  this  country  they  found  an  almost  unlimited 
amount  of  forest  land.  Four  hundred  years  of  careless 
cutting  have  so  devastated  our  forests  that,  unless  some 
heroic  efforts  are  made,  forests  will  soon  be  no  more. 
For  this  reason,  the  subject  of  forestry  has  recently  been 
receiving  much  attention. 

In  forestry  we  study  the  conditions  and  length  of  time 
necessary  to  produce  a  forest,  the  best  way  to  use  and 
not  to  destroy  a  forest,  and  methods  of  reforesting 
"cut-over"  lands.  Forestry  includes  also  the  study 
of  the  effects  of  forests  on  climate,  including  the  winds, 
temperature,  humidity  of  the  air,  rainfall,  drainage,  and 
other  effects  on  the  soil.  The  purpose  of  forestry  is  not 
to  prevent  the  death  or  destruction  of  trees,  for  all  trees 
must  die,  but  to  determine  when  to  cut  a  tree  so  that  it 
will  be  of  most  value  to  the  owner,  and  will  leave  its 
place  in  the  best  condition  to  be  occupied  by  other  trees. 
16 


230   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

161.  Some  Advantages  of  Forests. — It  is  now  known 
that  forests  have  an  important  influence  on  the  climate. 
The  air  in  a  forest  is  some  degrees  warmer  in  winter  and 
cooler  in  summer  than  the  air  in  the  open.  The  air 
in  the  forest  is  more  nearly  saturated  with  water  than 
the  air  outside.  These  three  conditions  must  affect 
more  or  less  the  surrounding  region.     The  trees  and  the 


A  Deforested  Hillside. 
This  shows  how  the  rain  water  runs  off  carrying  the  soil  with  it. 

dead  leaves  on  the  ground  catch  the  rain  and  hold  it  so 
that  it  does  not  run  off  so  rapidly  as  it  does  outside,  and 
thus  floods  are  checked.  Equalizing  the  flow  of  streams 
is  a  most  important  influence  of  forests.  Forests  hin- 
der evaporation  from  the  soil  to  a  very  great  extent, 
depending  on  the  amount  of  leaf  mold  on  the  ground. 
As  a  wind  break  the  forest  is  very  important  in  some 
places. 


FORESTRY  231 

It  has  been  claimed  by  many  that  forests  directly 
increase  the  rainfall  in  the  United  States.  On  this 
point  Pinchot's  "  Primer  of  Forestry,"  published  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  says:  "The 
best  evidence  at  hand  fails  to  show  a  decrease  in 
rainfall  over  the  United  States  in  the  last  hundred 
years,  in  spite  of  the  cutting  and  burning  of  immense 
areas  of  forests;  but  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
most  of  those  areas  have  grown  up  again,  first  with 
brush  and  afterwards  with  trees.  It  is  believed,  how- 
ever, that  more  rain  falls  over  forests  than  over  open 
country  similarly  placed;  but  how  much  it  is  impossible 
to  say." 

162.  What  Other  Nations  are  Doing  in  Forestry. — 
Almost  every  nation  is  doing  something  in  the  way  of 
public  forestry.  Japan  supports  an  efficient  body  of 
foresters  and  has  a  forest  school.  Government  forestry 
is  well  established  in  Austria,  Italy,  Norway,  and 
Sweden.  The  same  is  true  in  Turkey,  Greece,  Spain,  and 
Portugal.  Probably  the  most  perfect  system  is  in  Ger- 
many, where  there  are  seven  forestry  schools.  The 
forests  yield  the  nation  a  great  income.  France,  also, 
has  an  effective  system  by  which  destructive  floods  have 
been  prevented  by  the  planting  of  trees. 

Switzerland  has  one  of  the  best  systems  in  Europe, 
especially  as  a  pattern  for  the  United  States.  Forestry 
bae  been  practiced  there  for  six  hundred  years,  and  the 
public  forests  yield  an  annual  return  of  about  eight 
dollar-  per  acre.  The  Swiss  laws  "Are  intended  to  work 
more  thorough  instruction,  good  example,  and  encour- 
agement than  by  severe  regulation- 


232    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

The  forests  in  India  under  British  control  are  in 
charge  of  300  superior  officers  and  10,000  rangers,  and 
yield  an  annual  net  income  of  over  $3,000,000.  It  is 
said  that  30,000  square  miles  are  protected  against  fire 
at  a  yearly  cost  of  less  than  half  a  cent  per  acre. 

163.  What  Our  Government  is  Doing. — There  are  in 
the  United  States  more  than  500,000,000  acres  of  forests. 
For  somewhat  over  one  hundred  years  the  United  States 
has  made  some  effort  to  preserve  the  public  forests. 
Even  as  far  back  as  1653,  "the  authorities  of  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  forbade  the  cutting  of  timber  on  town 
lands  without  permission."  In  1799,  Congress  ap- 
propriated $200,000  for  the  purchase  and  preservation 
of  timber  land  to  supply  ship  timber  for  the  navy.  In 
1891,  an  act  was  passed  which  was  the  first  step  toward 
a  true  policy  for  the  forests  of  the  nation.  This  act  con- 
tained a  clause  which  authorized  the  President  to  re- 
serve timber  land  on  the  public  domain.  There  are 
now  sixty-two  such  reserves  of  public  timber  lands, 
covering  an  area  of  62,000,000  acres.  Their  use  is  to 
protect  drainage  basins  used  for  irrigating,  supply  grass 
and  forage  for  herds  of  cattle,  and  supply  wood  and 
lumber  for  settlers. 

Forest  Service  is  the  name  of  the  forestry  branch  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  The 
" Service"  is  making  a  map  of  the  distribution  of  tree 
species  in  the  United  States,  studying  the  value  of  differ- 
ent trees,  such  as  those  producing  tanbark,  willows  for 
baskets,  and  pines  for  turpentine.  The  officers  are 
supervisors,  rangers,  and  guards,  with  deputies.  Owners 
of  timber  land  are  given  advice  in  regard  to  the  best 


FORESTRY 


233 


methods  of  managing  their  forests.     A  study  is  made  of 
forest  products  and  the  extension  of  forests. 

164.  How  a  Forest  May  Be  Perpetuated. — Several 
methods  are  in  use  to  perpetuate  a  forest.  One  method 
consists  in  dividing  it  into  small  sections  and  cutting 
one  section  clean  each  year.  New  trees,  self-sown,  will 
grow  up;  and  after  many  years  the  forest  will  consist 


A  Formi  I'lMHM  1:1. v  Lockmbd  Hiram  tot  I 
TION&  The  young  growth  is  uninjured  ai 
for  burning, 


>KB8T    Si  i:\  ici     Ukgula- 

il  the  brush  is  piled  ready 


of  areae  in  which  the  trees  differ  in  age  by  one  year. 
For  example,  it  is  found  that  certain  trees  will  grow 
enough  for  railroad  ties  in  thirty-five  years.  By 
dividing  a  forest  into  thirty-five  bracts  and  cutting  off 
one  tract  each  year,  the  supply  could  be  made  per- 


234    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGKICULTURE 

petual.  Sometimes  the  trees  for  cutting  are  selected 
from  the  whole  forest,  the  same  ground  being  gone  over 
year  after  year.  Sometimes  a  strip  one  hundred  yards 
wide  or  thereabouts  is  cut  out  and  then  allowed  to  grow 
up  again. 

Become  acquainted  with  the  trees  in  your  vicinity  and  know 
the  names  of  some  of  them. 

165.  Home  and  School  Grounds. — Many  school- 
houses  and  some  farmhouses  are  situated  on  plots  of 
ground  that  are  destitute  of  trees  and  shrubs.  The 
sun  beats  on  the  buildings  in  the  summer  and  the 
wind  is  unbroken  in  the  winter.  Nothing  but  barren- 
ness is  visible.  If  the  objects  that  are  daily  seen  im- 
press our  lives  and  help  to  form  our  characters,  then 
here  is  an  opportunity  to  impress  beauty  rather  than 
its  opposite  quality. 

The  work  in  school  agriculture  ought  to  create  a  de- 
sire in  the  pupils  to  clean  up  and  beautify  the  home 
and  school  grounds.  From  the  neglected  yards  the 
tall  grass  and  weeds  should  be  mowed,  and  the  large 
weeds  pulled  up  by  the  roots;  the  dead  leaves  and  weeds 
should  be  raked  into  piles,  the  other  rubbish  gathered 
up,  and  all  burned  or  removed.  Grass  seed  should  then 
be  sown.  Even  if  nothing  further  is  done,  most 
premises  will  repay  such  work  by  their  improved 
appearance. 

166.  Trees  and  Shrubs. — Trees  and  shrubs  look 
better,  as  a  rule,  when  planted  in  groups  or  clumps, 
rather  than  scattered  singly  around  the  home  or  school- 
house.     Landscape  gardeners  say  that  the  larger  trees 


HOME    AND    SCHOOL    GROUNDS       235 

and  shrubs  should  be  in  the  background  as  a  setting  for 
the  buildings,  with  low  shrubs  near  the  buildings  and 
open  spaces  with  grass  in  front.  Often  trees  or  shrubs 
can  be  used  on  the  boundaries  in  place  of  unsightly 
fences.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  use  trees  or  tall  shrubs  to 
hide  the  unsightly  parts  of  buildings  and  outhouses.  In 
selecting  trees,  find  some  that  are  hardy  and  will  live 
readily  in  your  locality.  Some  trees  grow  rapidly  but 
will  not  live  long,  and  usually  prove  unsatisfactory. 
The  American  white  elm  (not  the  red  elm)  and  the  hard 
maple  (not  the  soft  maple)  are  two  standards  for  most 
localities.  The  basswood,  or  American  linden,  is  a  de- 
sirable tree  because  it  grows  rapidly  and  is  also  hardy. 
The  blossoms  are  visited  by  honeybees,  which  make 
excellent  honey  from  the  nectar  in  them.  The  ash 
trees  are  quite  satisfactory  in  the  Northern  States,  as 
are  also  the  sycamore,  mulberry,  walnut,  Norway  maple, 
horse-chestnut,  and  beech.  For  places  in  the  South  the 
catalpa,  tulip  tree,  the  cucumber  tree  and  the  sweet  gum 
may  be  added  to  the  list.  If  the  buildings  need  protec- 
tion from  the  winter  winds,  then  evergreen  trees  make 
a  good  wind-break.  The  Norway  spruce  is  quite  satis- 
factory for  this  purpose;  the  Colorado  blue  spruce  is 
perhaps  more  ornamental  but  not  quite  so  vigorous  in 
all  climates.  The  blue  spruce  is  often  used  as  an  orna- 
mental tree.  Directions  for  transplanting  trees  were 
given  on  page  154. 

In  choosing  shrubs,  choose  hardy  ones.  Wild  shrubs 
that  grow  in  the  locality  are  often  the  best  for  the  pur- 
pose. Often  there  is  some  one  in  the  neighborhood  or 
district  who  has  had  experience  in  growing  shrubs  in  his 


236    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

home  yard.  Such  a  person  will  generally  be'  glad  to 
help  in  choosing  suitable  shrubs,  and  sometimes  can 
supply  the  plants  from  his  own  yard.  Do  not  depend 
entirely  upon  the  descriptions  in  catalogues,  or  upon  the 
advice  of  agents  who  are  canvassing  for  shrubs  and  trees. 
Set  out  principally  such  shrubs  as  experience  has  shown 
will  grow  well  in  your  locality. 

Some  of  the  shrubs  that  are  used  in  many  localities 
and  have  proved  satisfactory  are  species  of  spirea,  bar- 
berry, honeysuckle,  weigela,  lilac,  snowball,  double- 
flowering  crab  or  plum,  mock  orange,  sumach,  dogwood, 
and  currants.  There  are  many  different  species  of  these 
shrubs,  some  being  better  adapted  to  one  purpose  and 
others  to  different  ones.  If  it  is  desired  to  form  a  hedge, 
the  common  barberry,  lilac,  bush  honeysuckle,  arbor- 
vitae,  elderberries,  or  others  similar  in  character,  will  be 
found  suitable.  If  there  is  a  corner  that  can  be  filled 
with  shrubs,  tall  ones  should  be  set  out  in  the  rear  and 
low  ones  in  the  front.  The  Japanese  barberry  is  a 
pretty  dwarf  variety,  and  Waterer's  spirea  is  very  de- 
sirable as  a  low  shrub,  while  the  rose-colored  weigela, 
tartarian  honeysuckle  and  mock  orange  are  taller  and 
suitable  for  places  in  the  background. 

167.  Vines. — There  are  many  climbing  plants  that 
can  be  used  to  make  a  yard  beautiful.  This  is  especially 
true  around  porches,  over  the  doors,  along  walls,  on 
arbors,  or  to  cover  unsightly  objects.  Climbing  roses, 
clematis,  Virginia  creeper,  bittersweet,  English  ivy, 
Boston  ivy,  climbing  honeysuckle,  wistaria,  trumpet 
creeper,  and  wild  grapevine  are  all  suitable  for  use.  A 
word  of  caution  is  needed  here,  as  well  as  at  all  points 


HOME    AND    SCHOOL    GROUNDS       237 

in  gardening,  that  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  plants,  or  the  results  will  be  unsatisfactory. 
Each  vine  has  its  own  beauty,  determined  by  its  form, 
leaves,  and  blossoms.  The  effect  desired  in  any  given 
place  must  determine  the  kind  to  be  planted.  There  are 
a  number  of  annual  climbers  that  may  be  used  in  some 
places  with  good  effect,  such  as  morning-glory,  wild 
cucumber,  cinnamon-vine,  moon-vine,  and  Madeira. 

1 68.  Flower  Garden. — Flowers  should  be  raised  in 
the  garden  or  close  to  the  sides  of  the  house,  but  not  in 
front  or  in  beds  on  the  lawn.  It  is  as  a  rule  better  to 
leave  the  lawn  directly  in  front  of  the  house  clear  of 
trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers,  but  at  the  sides  and  rear  trees 
and  shrubs  may  be  arranged  according  to  some  plan, 
and  the  shrubs  may  be  bordered  with  flowers. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  flower  beds  may  be  made 
from  the  native  flowers  which  grow  in  the  vicinity.  If 
a  shady  corner  can  be  found,  ferns  make  a  very  satis- 
factory background  near  buildings.  Violets  will  usually 
thrive  if  transplanted  with  care;  bloodroot,  anemones, 
hepatica,  spring  beauties,  pasque  flowers,  columbine, 
and  many  other  flowers  can  be  added.  Ferns  often  can 
be  added  to  such  a  bed  with  good  effect.  This  is  an  ex- 
cellent flower  bed  for  a  school  yard,  as  the  children  can 
dig  up  the  specimens  for  the  bed  and  tend  to  them  as 
tiny  grow.  The  blossoms  also  will  appear  early  in  the 
spring,  before  the  vacation  begins. 

Old-fashioned  flowers  can  be  grown  with  satisfaction 
in  the  flower  garden.  Hollyhocks,  phlox,  dahlias,  sun- 
flowers, pinks,  nasturtiums,  stocks,  vcrbenias,  mignon- 
ette, larkspur,  and   candytuft   represent  a  partial  list 


238   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

from  which  selections  may  be  made.  These  are  more 
suitable  for  the  flower  garden  at  home  than  at  school. 
Some  of  these  are  suitable  for  borders  along  walks 
where  shrubs  are  used  in  the  background. 

In  place  of  sowing  seeds  as  for  the  above-named 
plants,  bulbs  may  be  set  out.  A  bulb  is  a  short  under- 
ground stem  having  buds  and  many  scales,  which  repre- 
sent leaves.  Many  of  the  early-flowering  plants  come 
from  bulbs,  in  which  much  food  has  been  stored  in  the 
scales.  The  crocus  is  the  earliest  of  these  plants  to 
bloom  out-of-doors  in  the  spring.  The  hyacinths,  tulips, 
narcissi,  and  lilies  are  very  satisfactory.  These  bulbs 
should  be  planted  in  the  ground  in  the  autumn  before 
the  ground  freezes.  They  will  be  ready  to  start  with 
the  first  warm  spring  days.  If  the  winters  are  very 
severe  it  may  be  best  to  cover  the  ground  with  leaves  to 
protect  the  bulbs. 

The  most  satisfactory  flower  gardens  are  those  that 
are  laid  out  in  accordance  with  approved  plans.  There 
is  as  much  opportunity  for  the  display  of  good  taste  in 
this  matter  as  in  the  furnishing  of  the  inside  of  the 
house.  Landscape  gardening  is  being  studied  by  many 
persons,  and  more  and  more  grounds  are  being  planned 
so  as  to  produce  a  harmonious  effect  with  the  building 
and  its  surroundings. 

There  are  many  hardy  plants  that  may  be  used  in 
clumps  in  place  of  the  bedding  plants.  The  bedding 
plants  must  be  renewed  every  year,  and  it  is  always 
late  before  they  can  be  started.  The  hardy  ones  live 
over  the  winter,  and  increase  from  year  to  year.  The 
investment  here  is  a  permanent  one,  while  the  other 


HOME    AND    SCHOOL    GROUNDS       239 

plants  must  be  renewed  each  year.  The  hardy  plants 
are  much  easier  of  cultivation  than  the  bedding  plants. 
A  list  of  herbs  and  shrubs  is  given  by  a  landscape  gar- 
dener : 

HARDY  PERENNIALS  FOR  THE  FARMER'S  FLOWER 
GARDEN 

Aconitum  autumnale  (Monkshood). 

Aquilegia  (Columbine). 

Althea  (Hollyhocks). 

Delphinium  formosum  (Larkspur). 

Dicentra  spectahilis  (Bleeding  Heart). 

Funkia  subcordata  (Plantain  Lily). 

Hemerocallis  flava  (Lemon  Lily). 

Iris  Germanica,  named  varieties  (especially  Florentina,  Ma- 
dame Chereau,  and  Silver  King). 

Lilium  superbum. 

Monarda  didyma  (Bergamot). 

Peonies,  Chinese  (especially  Festiva  Maxima  and  Lady 
Leonora  Bramwell). 

Papaver  orientale  (Oriental  Poppy). 

Platycodon  grandiflora. 

Phlox  decussata  (especially  Lothair  and  Miss  Lingard). 

Pyrethrum  uliginosum  (Great  Daisy). 

Rudbeckia  (Golden  (Jlow). 

HARDY  FLOWERING  SHRUBS  BEST  ADAPTED  TO  THE 
FARMER'S  GARDEN  AND  LAWN 

Chionanthus  Virginica  (White  Fringe  Tree). 

Deutzia  Lemoinei. 

Hydrangea  grandiflora. 

Lonicera  bella  Candida  (Honeysuckle). 

Philadelphus  grandiflora  (Syringa). 

Spirea  Japonica,  variety  "Anthony  Waterer." 

Spirea  Thunbergii. 


240    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Spirea  Van  Houttei  (Bridal  Wreath). 
Symphoricarpus  racemosa  (Snowberry). 
Syringa  vulgaris  (Lilac),  especially  "President  Gravy"  and 
Frau  Bertha  Damman. 

Syringa  Japonica  (Japanese  Tree  Lilac). 
Viburnum  opuius  (High-bush  Cranberry). 
Viburnum  opuius  sterilis  (Snowball). 
Weigela  rosea. 
Weigela  Eva  Rathke. 

The  care  of  the  flower  garden  is  not  materially  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  vegetable  garden.  The  directions 
given  there  for  the  preparation  of  the  soil  and  its  sub- 
sequent treatment  will  also  apply  here.  The  soil  should 
not  be  cultivated  deep  enough  to  disturb  the  roots,  but 
the  ground  must  be  kept  free  from  weeds. 

Make  a  plan  for  improving  the  grounds  about  your  school- 
house,  or  some  other  building.     Start  the  work. 

169.  Conclusion. — The  carpenter  or  other  mechanic 
works  upon  his  material,  wood,  metal,  leather,  or  fabric, 
and  sees  it  change  under  his  hand  to  a  thing  of  use  or 
beauty.  But  these  materials  are  lifeless  and  passive. 
The  farmer,  on  the  other  hand,  is  dealing  with  things 
that  not  only  can  he  change,  but  they  themselves  have 
life  and  respond  to  his  efforts,  cooperating  with  him  to 
produce  every  product  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms. 

SUMMARY 

One  of  the  most  important  things  to  a  farmer  is  a  good  road. 
— A  good  road  is  one  that  is  hard  and  serviceable  in  all  weather 
and  seasons. — The  way  to  have  a  good  road  is  to  build  it  right, 
of  the  right  material,  and  to  keep  it  in  repair. 


HOME    AND    SCHOOL    GROUNDS      241 

Forestry  is  the  art  of  forming  or  of  cultivating  forests. — 
Forests  are,  next  to  the  earth,  the  most  important  possessions 
of  mankind.  They  affect  the  climate  and  water  supply. — 
Nearly  every  nation  in  Europe  gives  much  attention  to  forestry. 
— The  United  States  has  sixty-two  forest  reserves. 

School  agriculture  should  create  a  desire  to  beautify  school 
and  home  grounds. — Generally  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  rake 
up  and  clear  away  rubbish. — Shrubs  and  plants  should  be  set 
out  on  the  borders,  leaving  large  open  spaces  covered  with 
closely  mowed  grass. — Varieties  of  plants  that  are  known  to 
be  hardy  in  a  given  locality  should  be  set  out. — Vines  are  useful 
for  arbors,  on  walls,  and  to  cover  unsightly  objects. — The  flower 
garden  is  the  place  for  flower  beds  rather  than  the  lawn. — 
A  bed  of  wild  flowers  is  very  satisfactory. — Old-fashioned  flowers 
should  have  a  place. — Bulbs  yield  early  flowers. 


APPENDIX 


INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES 
Bordeaux  Mixture  for  Blights 

The  following  directions  for  making  Bordeaux  mixture 
should  be  strictly  followed  to  obtain  the  best  results:  Dissolve 
four  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  (bluestone,  blue  vitriol)  in 
twenty-five  gallons  of  water,  suspending  it  in  a  coarse  gunny 
sack  near  the  surface  of  the  water.  In  a  wooden  pail  slack 
six  pounds  of  fresh  quicklime  in  sufficient  water,  then  add 
enough  water  to  make  twenty-five  gallons  and  then  slowly 
pour  the  two  solutions  simultaneously  into  the  barrel  from  which 
it  is  to  be  used.  If  a  larger  tank  is  used,  proportionately  larger 
quantities  of  materials  should  be  taken.  Before  pouring  the 
lime  solution,  it  should  be  strained  through  a  coarse  gunny 
sack,  otherwise  particles  of  rock  and  undissolved  lime  will  get 
into  the  mixture  and  clog  the  nozzles  in  spraying.  It  is  very 
important  that  the  two  ingredients  be  mixed  as  described,  other- 
wise the  proper  combination  of  copper  sulphate  and  lime  does 
not  take  place. 

The  mixture  should  never  be  made  more  than  a  few  hours  in 
advance  of  application.  It  cannot  be  kept  over;  and  if  any  is 
left  in  the  spraying  machine  after  the  day's  work  is  done,  it 
should  be  emptied. 


2-M 


244    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

How  to  Treat  Seed  Oats  to  Prevent  Smut1 
Formaldehyde  Solution 

If  tfie  desire  is  to  sow  forty  bushels  of  seed  oats  or  less,  se- 
cure from  your  druggist  one  pint  of  formaldehyde.  Put  into  a 
barrel  or  tank  thirty-six  gallons  of  water  and  pour  in  the  pint  of 
formaldehyde  liquid  and  stir  thoroughly ;  next  fill  a  gunny  sack 
with  the  seed  oats  and  submerge  it  in  the  solution  for  ten  min- 
utes; then  lift  the  sack  from  the  barrel  and  allow  it  to  drain  for 
a  minute  or  two  in  order  to  save  the  solution.  Empty  the  oats 
on  a  thrashing  floor  or  on  some  outside  platform  to  dry,  and 
repeat  until  all  is  treated;  shovel  the  treated  grain  over  at  in- 
tervals until  dry  or  nearly  dry  before  sowing. 

If  a  large  quantity  of  seed  is  to  be  treated  the  work  will 
be  facilitated  by  having  several  barrels  or  a  large  tank  which 
will  hold  a  number  of  sacks  of  oats,  so  as  to  treat  several 
bushels  every  ten  minutes.  The  time  saved  by  having  an 
abundant  supply  of  the  solution  in  the  tank  or  barrels  will 
more  than  repay  the  extra  expense  of  the  formaldehyde  pur- 
chased. The  oats  must  always  be  completely  submerged  for  ten 
minutes. 

It  is  well  to  treat  seed  grain  several  days  before  sowing 
in  order  to  give  it  ample  time  to  dry,  or  difficulty  may 
be  experienced  when  sowing  with  seeder  or  drill.  If  sown 
while  damp  the  seeder  or  drill  should  be  set  so  that  it  will 
sow  about  one  bushel  more  per  acre  than  when  sowing  dry 
oats.     . 

The  formaldehyde  solution  here  recommended  is  not  poison- 
ous to  farm  animals  and  will  not  injure  sacks  or  clothing  coming 
in  contact  with  it.  Oats  treated  with  formaldehyde  solution 
and  not  used  for  seed  may  be  fed  to  stock,  but  when  so  fed  should 
be  mixed  with  other  oats. 

The  treatment  of  oats  here  recommended  facilitates   the 

1  From  "Oat  Smut  in  Wisconsin,"  Bulletin  98,  Wisconsin  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station. 


APPENDIX  245 

sprouting  and  gives  the  grain  a  healthy  appearance,  readily 
distinguished  by  any  observer.  It  is  possible  that  the  treat- 
ment kills  other  disease  germs  of  whicn  we  as  yet  have  no 
knowledge. 

How  to  Treat  Scabby  Seed  Potatoes 

"  Make  the  proper  solution  by  pouring  one  pint  of  formalde- 
hyde into  twenty-five  gallons  of  water.  Distribute  the  liquid 
into  several  casks  and  into  these  casks  put  the  uncut  seed  po- 
tatoes. The  potatoes  should  be  placed  in  gunny  sacks  and 
completely  covered  by  the  liquid  and  left  for  two  hours.  If 
the  potatoes  are  very  scabby  leave  for  two  and  a  half  hours. 
The  potatoes  should  then  be  planted  in  ground  that  has  not  in 
previous  years  grown  scabby  potatoes." — Wisconsin  Experi- 
ment Station  Bulletin. 

Kerosene  Emulsion 

Kerosene  emulsion  contains  the  following  ingredients: 

Soap £  pound 

Water 1  gallon 

Kerosene 2  gallons 

The  soap  is  cut  into  thin  shavings  and  dissolved  in  hot  soft 
water,  and  this  is  then  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  kerosene  by 
being  pumped  back  on  itself  with  a  force  pump.  Small  quan- 
tities, as  a  quart  or  more,  may  be  mixed  with  a  "Dover"  egg- 
beater.  This  emulsion  is  to  be  diluted  fifteen  to  twenty  times 
its  bulk  in  the  growing  season,  but  in  winter  it  may  be  used 
very  strong  for  scale  insects.  If  the  emulsion  sets  it  must  be 
heated  before  dilution.     Any  good  hard  soap  may  be  used. 

Paris  Green 

Paris  green  is  used  for  all  biting  and  chewing  insects,  the 
mixture  being  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  Paris  green  to 
150  gallons  of  water.     Paris  green  is  frequently  added  to  Bor- 
17 


246   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

deaux  mixture.     In  this  way  plant  diseases  are  prevented,  and 
the  ravages  of  insects  are  lessened  by  one  spraying. 

TABLES 

Table  I. — Soil  Constituents  Contained  in  Average 
Crops  per  Acre 

(From  Tables  of  A.  D.  Hall,  Director  of  Rothamsted  Experiment 

Station) 


Crop 

Nitrogen 

Soda 

Potash. 

Magnesia 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Sulphur 

Chlorine 

Silica 


w 

HEAT 

Barley 

SWEEDES 

Mangels 

Tons:     2.2 

o 

30.1 

30.1 

Lb. 

50.0 

49.0 

98.0 

149.0 

Lb. 

2.6 

5.0 

32.0 

118.7 

Lb. 

28.8 

35.7 

79.7 

300.7 

Lb. 

7.1 

6.9 

9.2 

42.5 

Lb. 

21.1 

20.7 

21.7 

52.9 

Lb. 

7.8 

6.1 

17.8 

14.0 

Lb. 

2.5 

4.1 

15.1 

83.1 

Lb. 

96.9 

68.6 

6.7 

17.9 

Hay 


1.5 

49.0 
9.2 
50.9 
14.4 
12.3 
5.7 
14.6 
56.9 


Table  II. — Fertility  Removed  by  Different  Crops 


Assumed 

Yield 
Per  Acre 

Removes  Per  Acre,  Lb. 

Kind  of  Crop 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Corn  (grain  and  stalks)  . .  . 
Wheat  (grain  and  straw).. . 
Oats  (grain  and  straw)..  .  . 

60  bu. 
30  bu. 
60  bu. 
2  tons 
2  tons 
1,600  lb. 
15  tons 
15  tons 
15  bu. 
200  bu. 

84 
62 
60 
82 
50 
70 
42 
100 
108 
33 

32 
20 
22 
18 
20 

8      , 

8 
35 
33 
20 

34 
26 
50 

88 

Timothy  hay 

Tobacco  (leaves  only) 

Sugar  beets,  topped 

60 

91 

65 

135 

52 

62 

1  From  Bulletin  No.  134,  University  of  Wisconsin  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  "Licensed  Commercial  Fertilizers  and  Feed- 
ing Stuffs." 


APPENDIX  247 


Table  III. — Space  and  Quantities  of  Seed  Required 

Name  Space  and  Quantity  of  Seeds 

Asparagus 1  oz.  produces  1,000  plants,  and  requires  a  bed  12  ft. 

square. 

Asparagus  Roots 1.000  plant  a  bed  4  feet  wide  and  225  feet  long. 

English  Dwarf  Beans  ...  1  quart  plants  100  to  150  feet  of  row. 
French  Dwarf  Beans. ...  1  quart  plants  250  to  350  feet  of  row. 

Beans,  pole,  large. 1  quart  plants  100  hills. 

Beans,  pole,  small 1  quart  plants  39  hills  or  250  feet  of  row. 

Beets 10  lb.  to  the  acre,  1  oz.  plants  150  feet  of  row. 

Broccoli  and  Kale 1  oz.  plants  2,500  plants,  and  requires  40  sq.  ft.  of 

ground. 
Cabbage Early  sorts  same  as  broccoli,  and  require  60  sq.  ft.  of 

ground. 

Cauliflower The  same  as  cabbage. 

Carrot 1  oz.  to  150  feet  of  row. 

Celery 1  oz.  plants  2,500  plants,   and    requires   40   sq.   ft.   of 

ground. 

Cucumber 1  oz.  for  150  hills. 

Cress 1  oz.  sows  a  bed  16  feet  square. 

Egg  Plant 1  oz.  gives  2,000  plants. 

Endive 1  oz.  gives  3,000  plants,  and  requires  80  feet  of  ground. 

Leek 1  oz.  gives  2,000  plants,  and  requires  60  feet  of  ground. 

Lettuce 1  oz.  gives  7,000  plants,  and  requires  a  seed  bed  of  120 

Melon 1  oz.  for'  120  hills. 

Nasturtium 1  oz.  sows  25  feet  of  row. 

Onion 1  oz.  sows  200  feet  of  row. 

Okra 1  oz.  sows  200  feet  of  row. 

Parsley 1  oz.  sows  200  feet  of  row. 

Parsnips 1  oz.  sows  250  feet  of  row. 

Peppers 1  oz.  gives  2,500  plants. 

Peas 1  quart  sows  120  feet  of  row. 

Pumpkin 1  oz.  to  150  hills. 

Radish 1  oz.  to  100  feet. 

Salsify 1  oz.  to  50  feet  of  row. 

Spinach. 1  oz.  to  200  feet  of  row. 

Squash 1  oz.  to  75  hills. 

Tomato 1  oz.  gives  2.500  plants,  requiring  a  seed  bed  of  80  feet. 

Turnip 1  oz.  to  2.000  feet. 

Watermelon 1  oz.  to  50  hills. 


Quantities  of  Seed  Required  to  the  Acre 

Quantity  Quantity 

Name  or  Seed  Name  of  Seed 

Wheat 11  to  2  bu.  Broom  Corn 1  to  \\  bu. 

Barley 1  j  to  2}  bu.  Potatoes 5  to  10  bu. 

Oats 2  to  4  bu.  Timothy 12  to  24  qt. 

Rve 1  to  2  bu.  Mustard 8  to  20  qt. 

Burk wheat J  to  1J  bu.  Herd  Grans 12  to  16  qt. 

Millet  1  to  1J  bu.  Flat  Turnip 2  to  3  lb. 

Corn }  to  1  bu.  Rod  Clover 10  to  16  lb. 

Beans 1  to  9  bu.  White  Clover. 3  to  4  lb. 

Peas 2J  to  3J  bu.  Blue  Grass 10  to  15  lb. 

Hemp 1  to  1J  bu.  Orchard  Grass 20  to  30  lb. 

\  to  2  bu.  Carrots 4  to  5  lb. 

Rice 2  to  2-1  lb.  Parsnips 6  to  8  lb. 


248    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGEICULTUKE 
Table  IV. — Amount  of  Nutrients  for  a  Day's  Feeding 


g 

Digestible 

o 

X 

B 

Nutrients 

•< 

a 
3 

i 

Standard 

Animal 

> 

h1 

K 
Q 

< 

O 
H 

c 
"55 

1 
Ph 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

> 

i 

Oxen 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Wolff-Leh- 

mann 

At  rest  in  stall 

Fattening  Cattle 

1000 

18.0 

0.7 

8.0 

0.1 

1:11.8 

Wolff-Leh- 

mann 

first  period 

1000 

30  0 

2.5 

15.0 

0.5 

1:  6.5 

" 

Second  period 

1000 

30.0 

3.0 

14.5 

0.7 

1:   5.4 

" 

Third  period 

1000 

26.0 

2.7 

15.0 

0.7 

1:  6.2 

Dairy  Cows 

Milch  cows,  produc- 

ing 16  lb.  of  milk 

per  day 

1000 

27.0 

2.0 

11.0 

0.4 

1:  6.0 

Wolff-Leh- 

Horses 

rnann 

Light  work 

1000 

20  0 

1.5 

9.0 

0.4 

1-  7  0 

Medium  work 

1000 

24.0 

2.0 

11.5 

0.6 

1:  6.2 

" 

Heavy  work 

1000 

26.0 

2.5 

13.3 

0.8 

1:  6.0 

Growing  Cattle 

Dairy  breeds 

Wolff-Leh- 

(Age  in  months) 

» 

mann 

2-3 

150 

3.5 

0.60 

1.95 

0.300 

1:  4.5 

" 

3-6 

300 

7.2 

0.90 

3.84 

0.300 

1:  5.1 

*' 

6-12 

500 

13.5 

1.00 

6.25 

0.250 

1:  6.8 

•* 

12-18 

700 

18.2 

1.26 

8.75 

0.280 

1:  7.5 

18-24 

900 

23.4 

1.35 

10.80 

0.270 

1:  8.5 

Woiff-Leh- 

Beef  breeds 

mann 

2-3 

160 

3.7 

0.67 

2.08 

0.320 

1:  4.2 

" 

3-6 

330 

7.9 

1.16 

4.22 

0.495 

1:  4.7 

" 

6-12 

550 

13.8 

1.38 

7.26 

0.385 

1:  6.0 

M 

12-18 

750 

18.0 

1.50 

9.38 

0.375 

1:  6.7 

18-24 

950 

22.8 

1.71 

11.40 

0.380 

1:  7.2 

Growing  Sheep 

Wolff-Leh- 

Wool breeds 

man  n 

4-6 

60 

1.5 

0.20 

0.92 

0.042 

1:  5.0 

" 

6-8 

75 

1.9 

0.21 

1.04 

0.045 

1:  5.4 

" 

8-11 

80 

1.8 

0.17 

0.92 

0.040 

1:  6.0 

" 

11-15 

90 

2.0 

0.16 

1.01 

0.036 

1:  7.0 

" 

15-20 

100 

2.2 

0.15 

1.08 

0.030 

1:  7.7 

Wolff-Leh- 

Mutton  breeds 

mann 

4-6 

60 

1.6 

0.26 

0.93 

0.054 

1:  4.0 

" 

6-8 

80 

2.1 

0.28 

1.20 

0.056 

1:  4.8 

•* 

8-11 

100 

2.4 

0.30 

1.43 

0.050 

1:  5.2 

<< 

11-15 

120 

2.8 

0.26 

1.51 

0.060 

1:  6.3 

M 

15-20 

150 

3.3 

0.30 

1.80 

0.060 

1:  6.5 

See  note  on  page  249. 


APPENDIX 


249 


Table  IV. — Continued 


9 

Digestible 

o 

s 

t 

N 

UTKIENTS 

B 

M 

< 

s 

* 

m 

Standard 

Animal 

£ 

>< 
■ 

q 

go 

a 
> 

w 

(5 

< 

o 

6-2 

"5 

i 

H 

£ 

o* 

p 

Growing  Swine 

Breeding  stock 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

(Age  in  months) 

Wolff-Leh- 

man n 

2-3 

50 

2.2 

0.38 

1.40 

0.050 

1 

4.0 

" 

3-5 

100 

3.5 

0.50 

2.31 

0.080 

1 

5.0 

" 

5-6 

120 

3.8 

0.44 

2.56 

0.048 

1 

6.0 

" 

6-8 

200 

5.6 

0.56 

3.74 

0.060 

1 

7.0 

" 

8-12 

250 

6.3 

0.53 

3.83 

0.050 

1 

7.5 

Growing  fattening 

>Suine 

Wolff-Leh- 

mann 

2-3 

50 

2.2 

0.38 

1.40 

0.050 

1 

4.0 

" 

3-5 

100 

3.5 

0.50 

2.31 

0.080 

1 

5.0 

" 

B  8 

150 

5.0 

0 .  G  5 

3.35 

0.090 

1 

5.5 

" 

6-8 

200 

6.0 

0.72 

4.10 

0.080 

1 

6.0 

9-12 

200 

5.2 

0.60 

3.66 

0.060 

1 

6.4 

Car- 

Human beings 

Pro- 
tein 

o   16 

bohy- 
drates 
and 

1  :it< 

Children.  6-15  yrs. 

0.93 

1:  5.2 

Stinl.-rii- 

0.20 

1.11 

1:   5.8 

Profearional  Men 

0.27 

1  .78 

1:  4.7 

M:ui  with  moderate 

work 

0.28 

1 .  88 

1:   5.8 

Man  with  hard  work 

0.88 

2 .  »>7 

1:    ti.'J 

1  The  nutritive  ratio  is  obtained  by  mnh i|»l>  inK  the  number  of  pounds  of  fat 

by  2},addiiiK  tin-  product  t<>  tin-  number  of  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  and  divid- 
ing this  Mini  by  thi«  number  of    pounds  of   protein  for  the  teoood   term  of  the 
The  first  term  of  the  ratio  is  1. 


250    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Table  V. — Dry  Matter  and  Digestible  Food  Ingredients 
in  100  Pounds  of  Feeding  Stuffs  ! 


Feeding  Stuff 


Green  fodder: 

Corn  fodder  2  (average  of 

all  varieties) 

Kafir-corn  fodder 

Rye  fodder 

Oat  fodder 

Redtop,  in  bloom 

Orchard  grass,  in  bloom. 
Meadow  fescue,  in  bloom. 
Timothy,3     at     different 

stages 

Kentucky  blue  grass .... 

Hungarian  grass 

Red  clover,  at   different 


Crimson  clover 

Alfalfa,4     at    different 


Cowpea 

Soy  bean 

Rape 

Corn  silage(recent  analyses) 
Corn  fodder,2  field  cured. . . . 

Corn  stover,  field  cured 

Kafir-corn    stover,    field 

cured  

Hay  from: 

Barley 

Oats 

Orchard  grass 

Redtop 

Timothy  3  (all  analyses). . 

Kentucky  blue  grass. . .  . 

Hungarian  grass 

Meadow  fescue 

Mixed  grasses 

Rowen  (mixed) 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover 

Red  clover 

Alsike  clover 

White  clover 

Crimson  clover. .  .  . 

Alfalfa4 

Cowpea 

Soy  bean 

Wheatstraw 

Ryestraw 

Oat  straw 

Soy-bean  straw 


Total 

Dry 

Protein 

Matter 

rounds 

Pounds 

20.7 

1.10 

27.0 

0.87 

23.4 

2.05 

37.8 

2.44 

34.7 

2.06 

27.0 

1.91 

30.1 

1.49 

38.4 

2.01 

34.9 

2.66 

28.9 

1.92 

29.2 

3.07 

19.3, 

2.16 

28.2 

3.89 

16.4 

1.68 

28.5 

2.79 

14.3 

2.16 

25.6 

1.21 

57.8 

2.34 

59.5 

1.98 

80.8 

1.82 

89.4 

5.11 

84.0 

4.07 

90.1 

4.78 

91.1 

4.82 

86.8 

2.89 

78.8 

4.76 

92.3 

4.50 

81.0 

4.20 

87.1 

4.22 

83.4 

7.19 

87.1 

6.16 

84.7 

7.38 

90.3 

8.15 

90.3 

11.46 

91.4 

10.49 

91.6 

10.58 

89.3 

10.79 

88.7 

10.78 

90.4 

0.37 

92.9 

0.63 

90.8 

1.20 

89.9 

2.30 

Carbo- 
hydrates 


Pounds 

12.08 
13.80 
14.11 
17.99 
21.24 
15.91 
16.78 

21.22 
17.78 
15.63 

14.82 
9.31 

11.20 
8.08 
11.82 
8.65 
14.56 
32.34 
33.16 

41.42 

35.94 
33.35 
41.99 
46.83 
43.72 
37.46 
51.67 
43.34 
43.26 
41.20 
42.71 
38.15 
41.70 
41.82 
38.13 
37.33 
38.40 
38.72 
36.30 
40.58 
38.64 
39.98 


Pounds 

0.37 
0.43 
0.44 
0.97 
0.58 
0.58 
0.42 

0.64 
0.69 
0.36 

0.69 
0.44 

0.41 
0.25 
0.63 
0.32 
0.88 
1.15 
0.57 

0.98 

1.55 
1.67 
1.40 
0.95 
1.43 
1.99 
1.34 
1.73 
1.33 
1.43 
1.46 
1.81 
1.36 
1.48 
1.29 
1.38 
1.51 
1.54 
0.40 
0.38 
0.76 
1.03 


1  From  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  22  [Revised  Edition]. 

2  Corn  fodder  is  entire  plant,  usually  sown  thick. 

3  Herd's  grass  of  New  England  and  New  York. 

4  Lucern. 


APPENDIX 


251 


Table  V. — Continued 


Fkeding  Stuff 


Roots  and  tubers: 

Potatoes 

Beets 

Mangel-wurzels 

Turnips 

Ruta-bagas 

Carrots 

Grains  and  other  seeds: 
Corn    (average    of    dent 

and  flint) 

Kafir  corn 

Barley 

Oats 

Rye 

Wheat  (all  varieties) .... 

Cotton  seed  (whole) 

Mill  products: 

Corn  meal 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Oatmeal 

Barley  meal 

Ground    corn    and    oats, 

equal  parts 

Pea  meal 

Waste  products: 
Gluten  meal: 

Buffalo 

Chicago 

Hammond 

King 

Cream    gluten    (recent 

analyses) 

Gluten   feed    (recent 

analyses) 

Buffalo  (recent  analy- 
ses)   

Rockfonl  (Diamond).  . 

Hominy  chops 

Malt  sprouts 

Brewers'  grains  (wet)... 
Brewers'  grains  (dried). 
IH-tUlery  grains   (dried), 

principally  corn.. 
I>i-tillery  grains   (<lri«»<l). 

principally  rye.. 
Atlas    gluten    feed    (dis- 
tillery hy-pro.lti 

Rye  bran 

Wheat  bran,  all  analyses. 

Wheal  middlings 

Wheat  shorts 

BoekwheeJ  bran 

Buckwheat  mi<l<lliim- 
Cotton--*>c<l  f«-c<] 

Ootton  seed  meal 

Cotton-seed  hulls 

Linseed  meal  (old  process) 


Total 

Dry 

Matter 


Pounds 
21.1 
13.0 
9.1 
9.5 
11.4 
11.4 


81.1 
87.5 
89.1 
89.0 
88.4 
89.5 
89.7 

85.0 
84.9 
92.1 
88.1 


91.8 
90.5 
91.9 
92.8 

90.4 

91.9 

91.0 
91.3 
88.9 
89.8 
24.3 
92.0 

93.0 

93.2 

92.6 
88.2 

ss  r. 

HI    I) 

91   § 

90.8 


Protein 


Pounds 
1.36 
1.21 
1.03 
0.81 
0.88 
0.81 


7.14 
5.78 
8.69 
9.25 
9.12 
10.23 
11.08 

6.26 

4.76 

11.53 

7.36 

7.01 
16.77 


21.56 
33.09 
24.90 
30.10 

30.45 

19.95 

22.88 
20 .  38 

8.43 
18.72 

4.00 
19.04 

21.93 

10.88 

23.23 
11.47 

]_•  (tl 
12.79 
12.22 
19.29 

87  "i 
1.05 

28.76 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Pounds 
16.43 
8.84 
5.65 
6.46 
7.74 
7.83 


66.12 
53.58 
64.83 
48.34 
69.73 
69.21 
33.13 

65.26 
60.06 
52.06 
62.88 

61.20 
51.78 


43.02 
39.96 
45.72 
35.10 

•i.r).;«i 

54.22 

51.71 
64 . 7 1 
t,i  ,01 
43  BO 
9.37 
31.79 

88.08 

42.48 

88  84 

62  i<» 
41.23 

:>:<  I:, 

1<)  <»s 

81  66 

86  1  * 

it,  62 

32.81 


Fat 


Fuel 
Value 


Pounds 

6i05 
0.11 
0.11 
0.11 
0.22 


4.97 
1.33 
1.60 
4.18 
1.36 
1.68 
18.44 

3.50 
2.94 
5.93 
1.96 

3.87 
0.65 


11.87 

4.75 

10.16 

15.67 

2.47 

5.35 

2.89 
3.82 
7.06 
1.16 
1.38 
6.08 

10.83 


1.79 
2.87 
8  io 
8  88 

i  :,., 
6.21 

1.89 

7.00 


Calories 
33.089 
18,904 
12,889 
13,986 
16,497 
16,999 


157,237 
116,022 
143,499 
124,757 
152.4G0 
154,848 
160,047 

147,797 
132,972 
143,302 
138,918 

143,202 
130,246 


170,210 
155,918 
174,228 
187,399 

151,420 

160,688 

150,933 
166.788 
1 68,962 

30,692 

119,990 

157,340 

125.243 

169318 
126,362 

111,138 
136,996 

184,979 
103.911 
152,663 
69339 
144,818 


252   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


Table  V. — Continued 


Feeding  Stuff 


Waste  products  {cont'd) : 
Linseed  meal  (new  proc- 
ess)   

Sugar-beet  pulp  (fresh).. 
Sugar-beet  pulp  (dry) . . . 
Milk  and  its  by-products: 

Whole  milk 

Skim  milk,  cream  raioed 

by  setting 

Skim  milk,  cream  raised 

by  separator 

Buttermilk 

Whey 


Total 
Dry 

Matter 


Pounds 

90.1 
10.1 
93.6 

12.8 


9.4 
9.0 
6.2 


Protein 


Pounds 

30 .  59 
0.63 
6.80 

3.38 

3.10 

3.01 

2.82 
0.56 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Pounds 

38.72 

7.12 

65.49 

4.80 

4.61 

5.10 
4.70 
5.00 


Fat 


Pounds 
2.90 


3.70 

0.90 

0.30 
0.50 
0.10 


Fuel 
Value 


Calories 

141,155 

14,415 

134,459 

30,829 

18,139 

16,351 
16,097 
10,764 


Fuel  Value 

The  last  column  in  the  above  table,  headed  "fuel  value," 
indicates  the  heat  and  energy  power  of  the  food.  As  stated 
above,  one  of  the  primary  functions  of  the  food  is  to  produce 
heat  for  the  body  and  energy  for  work.  The  value  of  food  for 
this  purpose  is  measured  in  "heat  units"  or  "calories,"  '  and  is 
calculated  from  the  nutrients  digested.  Thus  the  fuel  power  of 
1  pound  of  digestible  fat  is  estimated  to  be  4,220  calories,  and 
of  1  pound  of  digestible  portein  or  carbohy  drates  about  1,860 
calories.  The  total  fuel  value  of  a  feeding  stuff  is  found  by 
using  these  factors. 

The  meaning  of  the  figures  in  the  above  table  is  that  in  100 
pounds  of  green  corn  fodder  containing  an  average  amount  of 
dry  matter  (20.7  pounds)  there  are  contained  approximately 
1.10  pounds  of  digestible  protein  (materials  containing  nitrogen), 
12.08  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates  (starch,  sugar,  fiber, 
etc.),  and  0.37  pound  of  digestible  fat;  and  that  these  materials 
when  consumed  in  the  body  will  yield  26,076  calories  of  heat, 
furnishing  energy  for  work  and  maintaining  the  temperature 
of  the  body. 

1 A  calorie  of  heat  is  the  amount  required  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  a  pound  of  water  about  4°  F. 


Fable  VI. — Rations  Actually  Fed  to  Horses  and  Digestible  Nutrient 
and   Energy  in   Rations 

(Calculated  on  basis  of  1,000  pounds  live  weight) 


1 

o 
X 

i 

'53 

Nutrients  in 

Ration  per  1,000 

Pounds 

Live  Weight 

Digestible  Nutri- 
ents in  Ration 
per  1 ,000  Pounds 
Live  Weight 

3 

TO 

a>  to 

Kind  of  Horses 

Rations 
Actually  Fed 

a 

'S3 

e 

E 
© 

-a 
3 

5 

'S3 

2 

Oh 

to 

fcl 

13 

EJ 

u 

fi 

E 
• 

2 
0 

sj 

—  3 

c 

5 
a 
H 

A  rmy  Horses 

Lbs. 

Pounds. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Calo- 

United States: 

1,050 

[Oats,  12 

IHay,  14 

/Oats,  12 

tHay,  14 

12.140. 90 

12.82 

4.95 

1,25 

0.57 

8  00 

1   97 

ries. 
23,30 
21.7S 

1,125 

J2.00 

.84 

11.96 

4.62 

1.10 

.53 

7.48 

1.84 

Mules 

1,025 

/Oats,  9 

IHay,  14 

}l.84 

.78 

11.39 

4.80 

l.Ott 

.48 

6.88 

1.94 

20,25 

Horses  with  Light 
Work 

Driving  horse,  Wyo- 
ming Station 

}  1.200 

/Alfalfa,  21.25. 
1  Straw.  3.2  ..  . 

}2. 38 

.18 

5.87 

2.34 

1.76 

.05 

3.58 

.92 

11, 8£ 

Carriage  horse 

Average 

1,050 

/Oats,  10 

IHay,  12 

J2.06 

.76 

10.42 

3.87 
3.10 

4.57 

1.40 
1.58 

.87 

.40 
.22 

.41 

6.97 
5.27 

6.14 

1.44 
1.18 

1.73 

19.9:< 

2.22 

1.65 

.47 
.68 

8.15 
9.57 

15,8* 
18,0( 

Fire  company  horses: 
Boston,  Mass 

1,400 

fGround  grain, 

9.38. 
Hay,  18 

Chicago,  111 

i  ,.m 

(Oats,  4 

IHay,  15 

jl.00 

.43 

6.77 

3.50 

.42 

.24 

3.70 

1.45 

1.26 
1.24 

11, 3( 

Average  of  6,  in- 
cluding above  . . . 

1.35 

.56 

7.95 
8.00 

3.20 
3.18 

.78 
.99 

.35 
■  32 

4.99 
5.06 

1  i  5. 

General  average 
for  light  work  . .  . 

1.57 

.54 

14.81 

Horses  with  Moderate 

Work 

Express  horses: 

Richmond,  Va., 
summer 

}  1,400 

/Corn,  4.67... 

0\ts,  5.33.... 
/Bran.  0.83... 
\Corn  meal, 
4.16. 

\Hay,  15 

(Corn,  2 

/Oats,  19 

\Bran,  1.5 

tffay,  9.5 

("Corn,  13 

■».25.... 

H.-v.  20 

1.79 
\ 

.78 

11.78 

3.64 

.97 

.45 

s    19 

1.46 

21,6 

Jersey  City,  N.J... 

1,325 

)2.45 

1.03 

13.45 

3.57 

1.64 

67 

9 .  :{7 

1.32 

25,8 

Boston,  Mass 

Average  of  4,  in- 
cluilitig  ■ 

( 

[2.38 

1.04 

14.96 

S .  S3 

4.13 

1.28 

1.21 

.60 

9.7.". 
9.0C 

2.12 
1.63 

27,01 

2.15 

.93 

13.27 

24,5 

1  Nitrogen-free  extract  consists  of  the  carbohydrates  minus  the  crude  fiber,  i.e.  sugar,  starch,  and  gui 


254   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGKIOULTUKE 


Table  VII. — Pounds  of  Total  Dry  Matter  and  Digestible 
Ingredients  (Protein  and  Carbohydrates,  Including 
Fats  X  2.25)  in  Varying  Weights  of  Fodders  and  Feeds. 

(Used  by  courtesy  of  Professor  J.  L.  Hills,  of  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station, 
modified  from  Bulletin  81.) 


Pounds  of 

a 

'3 

2    M 

q| 

a 

'3 

O    GO 

k 

O  co 

'3 

1    o 

"O  aT 

Fodder 

j§"c3 

o 

■S3 

j"S 

g 

JD  01 

13 

8 

,Q  CD 

3l 

"o 

■el 

©S 

£ 

c3  o3 

eSs 

Ph 

0£ 

ss 

fi 

C3  g 

0£ 

?s 

£ 

Grasses 

Pasture  Grass, 

Timothy  Grass, 

Red  Top  Grass, 

Kentucky  Blue 

1  1:4.8 

1:14.3 

1:14.6 

Grass,  1:9.2 

2i 

0.5 

0.06 

0.3 

1.00.04 

0.5 

0.90.031  0.5 

0.910.05 

0.5 

5 

1.0 

0.12 

0.6 

1.90.08 

1.1 

1.70.07 

1.0    1.80.10 
1.9    3.50.20 

0.9 

10 

2.0 

0.23 

1.1 

3. 80. 15 

2.1 

3.50.13 

1.8 

15 

3.0 

0.35 

1.7 

5.8  0.23 

3.2 

5.2  0.20 

2.9    5.20.30 

2.7 

20 

4.0 

0.46 

2.2 

7.70.30 

4.3 

6.90.26 

3.8    7.00.40 

3.7 

25 

5.0 

0.58 

2.8 

9.60.38 

5.4 

8.70.33 

4.8    8.70.50 

4.7 

30 

6.0 

0.69 

3.3 

11.50.45 

6.4 

10.40.39 

5.7  10.5  0.60 

5.5 

35 

7.0 

0.81 

3.9 

13.4  0.53 

7.5 

12.1  0.46 

6.7  12.20.70 

6.4 

40 

8.0 

0.92 

4.4 

15.40.60 

8.6 

13.9!0.52|  7.614.00.80 

7.3 

Grasses  and 

Alfalfa, 

Green  Fodder 

Sweet  Fodder 

Green  Barley 

Green  Fodders 

1:3.6 

Corn,  1:11.7 

Corn,  1:11.3 

Fodder,  1:5.7 

2J 

0.5 

0.10 

0  4 

0.50.03 

0.3 

0.5 

0.03 

0.3 

0.6 

0.06 

0.3 

5 

1.0 

0.20 

0.7 

1.0,0.06 

0.6 

1.0 

0.06 

0.7 

1.2 

0.12 

0.7 

10 

1.9 

0.41 

1.4 

2.1  0.11 

1.3 

2.1 

0.12 

1.4 

2.5 

0.24 

1.4 

15 

2.9 

0.61 

2.2 

3.10.17 

1.9 

3.1 

0.18 

2.1 

3.7 

0.36 

2.1 

20 

3.9 

0.81 

2.9 

4.1  0.22 

2.6 

4.2 

0.24 

2.7 

5.0 

0.48 

2.7 

25 

4.8 

1.02 

3.6 

5.2!0.28 

3.2 

5.2 

0.30 

3.4 

6.2 

0.60 

3.4 

30 

5.8 

1.23 

4.4 

6.20.33 

3.9 

6.3 

0.36 

4.1 

7.4 

0.72 

4.1 

35 

6.8 

1.44 

5.1    7.20.39 

4.5 

7.3 

0.42 

4.8 

8.7 

0.84 

4.8 

40 

7.7 

1.64 

5.8 

8.3,0.44 

5.2 

8.4 

0.48 

5.4 

9.9 

0.96 

5.4 

Green 

Green  Oat 

Green  Rye 

Green  Hun- 

Oats and 

Fodders 

Fodder,  1:8.7 

Fodder,  1:7.2 

garian,  1:8.7 

Peas,  1:4.2 

21 

0.9 

0.06 

0.5 

0.6 

0.05    0.4 

0.710.05 

0.4 

0.50.07    0.3 

5 

1.9 

0.12 

1.0 

1.2 

0.11 

0.7 

1.40.10 

0.8 

1.10.14    0.5 

10 

3.8 

0.24 

2.1 

2.3 

0.21 

1.5 

2.90.20 

1.7 

2.10.27    1.1 

15 

5.7 

0.36 

3.1 

3.5 

0.32 

2.3 

4.3|0.30 

2  6 

3.20.41    1.7 

20 

7.6 

0.48 

4.2 

4.7 

0.42 

3.0 

5.8'0.40 

3.5 

4.30.54    2.3 

25 

9.5 

0.60 

5.2 

5.9 

0.52 

3.8 

7.20.50 

4.3 

5.30.68    2.9 

30 

11.3 

0.72 

6.2 

7.0 

0.63 

4.5 

8.7 

0.60 

5.2 

6.40.81    3.4 

35 

13.2 

0.84 

7.3 

8.2 

0.74 

5.3 

10.1 

0.70 

6.1 

7.50.95    4.0 

40 

15.1 

0.96 

8.3 

9.4 

0.84 

6.0 

11.6 

0.80 

6.9 

8.51.08    4.6 

Green 

Barley  and 

Red  Clover 

Alsike  Clover 

Green  Clover 

Fodders 

Peas,  1:3.2 

(green),  1:5.7 

(green),  1:5.3 

Rowen,  1:4.2 

2i 

0.5 

0.07 

0.2 

0.70.07 

0.4 

0.6:0.07 

0.3 

0.6 

0.07 

0.3 

5 

1.0 

0.14 

0.4 

1.50.15 

0.8 

1.30.13 

0.7 

1.3 

0.14 

0.6 

10 

2.1 

0.28 

0.9 

2.9J0.29 

1.6 

2.50.26 

1.4 

2.5 

0.29 

1.2 

15 

3.1 

0.42 

1.4 

4.40.44 

2.5 

3.8:0.89 

2.1 

3.8 

0.44 

1.6 

20 

4.1 

0.56 

1.8 

5.90.58 

3.3 

5.00.52 

2.8 

5.0 

0.58 

2.4 

25 

5.2 

0.70 

2.3 

7.310.73 

t  4.1 

6.3j0.65 

3.5 

6.3 

0.73 

3.0 

30 

6.2 

0.84 

2.7 

8.80.87 

4.9 

7.60.78 

4.2 

7.5 

0.87 

3.6 

35 

7.2 

0.98 

3.2 

10. 21. 02 

5.7 

8.810.91 

4.9 

8.8 

1.02 

4.2 

40 

1  8.2 

1.12 

3.6 

11.7 

1.16 

6.6 

10.1 

1.04 

5.6 

10.0 

1.16 

4.8 

1  Numbers  1 :4.8,  1 :  14.3,  etc.,  give  the  nutritive  ratio. 


APPENDIX 

Table  VII. — Continued 


255 


£- 

c 

1    o 

£. 

a 

1    o 

>> 

d 

1    o 

bu 

c 

■  6 

Pounds  of 
Foddkr 

•55 

s 

Pi 

'55 
1 

E 

Pi 

_ 

H 

'53 

| 

Pi 

5| 

~  r. 

"55 

I 

Pi 

Corn  Silage 

Corn  Silage 

Corn  Stover 

Clover 

Silages 

(mature), 

(immature), 

Silage, 

Silage, 

1:14.8 

1:14.6 

1:16.6 

1:4.7 

2j 

0.7  0.03 

0.4 

0.50.02 

0.3 

0  5 

0.02 

0.3 

0.7  0.07 

0.3 

5 

1.3 

0.06 

0.8 

1.00.05 

0.6 

1.0 

0.03 

0.5 

1.40.14 

0.6 

10 

2.6 

0.12 

1.8 

2.1  0.09 

1.3 

1.9 

0.06 

1.0 

2.80.27 

1.3 

15 

3.9 

0.18 

2.7 

3.1  0.14 

1.9 

2.9 

0.09 

1.5 

4.20.41 

1.9 

20 

5.3 

0.24 

3.6 

4.20.18 

2.6 

3.9 

0.12 

2.0 

5.6  0.54 

2.6 

25 

6.G 

0.30 

4.5 

5.2  0.23 

3.2 

4.8 

0.15 

2.5 

7.00.68 

3.2 

30 

7.9 

0.36 

5.3 

6.30.27 

3.9 

5.8 

0.18 

3.0 

8.40.81 

3.9 

35 

9.2 

0.42 

6.2 

7.3  0.32 

4.5 

6.8 

0.21 

3.5 

9.8  0.95 

4.5 

40 

10.5 

0.48 

7.1 

8.40.36    5.2 

7.7 

0.24 

4.0 

11.2  1.08 

5.1 

Roots 

Potatoes, 

Beets, 

Sugar  Beets, 

Carrots, 

1:17.3 

1:6.5 

1:6.8 

1:9.6 

2* 

0.510.02 

0.4 

0.3 

0.04 

0.2 

0.30.04 

0.3 

0.30.03 

0.2 

5 

1.1  0.05 

0.8 

0.6 

0.07 

0.5 

0.7 

0.08 

0.5 

0.510.05 

0.5 

10 

2.10.09 

1.6 

1.2 

0.14 

0.9 

1.4 

0.16 

1.1 

1.1  0.10 

1.0 

15 

3.2 

0.14 

l'.:< 

1.7 

0.21 

1.4 

2.0 

0.24 

1.7 

1.6  0.15 

1.4 

20 

4.2 

0.18 

3.1 

2.3 

0.2S 

1.8 

2.7 

0.32 

2.2 

2.30.20 

1.9 

25 

5.3 

0.23 

3.9 

2.9 

0.35 

2.3 

3.4 

0.40 

2.7 

2.90.25 

£.4 

30 

6.3 

0.27 

4.7 

3.5 

0.42 

L>.7 

4.1 

0.  IN 

3.3 

:i   i  0.80 

2.9 

35 

7.4 

0.32 

5.4 

4.0 

0.49 

3  2 

4.7 

0.50 

3.8 

4.00.35 

3.4 

40 

8.4 

0.36 

6.2 

4.6 

0.50 

3.6 

5.1  0.01 

4.4 

4.0,0.40 

3.8 

Roots  and 

Mangel 

Ruta-bagaa, 

Turnips, 

Skimmed  Milk 

Milk 

Wurtzels,  1:4.9 

1:8.6 

1:7.7 

1:2.0 

2i 

0.20.03    0.1 

0.3 

0.03 

0.2 

0.2 

0.03 

0.2 

0.20.07 

0.1 

5 

0.40.06    0.3 

0.5 

0.05 

0.4 

0.5 

0.05 

0.4 

0.50.15 

0.3 

10 

0.90.11    0.5 

1.1 

0.10 

0.9 

1.0 

0.10 

0.81  0.90.29 

0.0 

15 

1.40.17    0.8 

1.6 

0.15 

1.3 

1.4 

0.15 

1.2     1.4  0.44 

0.9 

20 

1.80.22    1.1 

2.3 

0.20 

1.7 

1.9 

0.20 

1.5 

1.90.58 

1.2 

25 

2.3 

0.28    1.4 

2.9 

0.25 

2.2 

2.4 

0.25 

1.9 

2.40.73 

1.6 

M 

2  7 

0.33    1.6 

3.4 

0.30 

2.6 

2.9 

0.30 

2 . 8 

2.80.87 

l.s 

35 

3.2 

0.39    1.9 

4.0 

0.86 

3.0 

3.3 

L\7 

3.2  1.02 

2.1 

40 

3.6 

0.441  2.2 

-1.0 

0.40 

3.4 

3.8 

0.10 

3.1 

3.7,1.16 

2.4 

Milk 

Buttermilk, 
1:1.7 

Whey, 
1:8.7 

f 

0.2 
0.5 
1.0 

0.10 

0.19 

o.:is 

0.2 
0.3 
0.6 

0.210.02 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 



10 

'.'.'.'. 

15 

1.5 
2.0 
2.5 

0.67 
0.76 

1.0 
1.3 
1.6 

0.9  0.09 
1.20.12 
1. 5  0.15 

0.8 
1.0 

1.3 

20 

25 

30 

3.0 
3.5 
4.0 

1.14 
1.33 
1 .  62 

1.9 
2.2 

1A 

1.90.18 
2.50.24 

If 
1.8 
2.1 

35 

40 

.... 

'.'.'.'. 

.... 

.... 

256    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


Table  VII. — Continued 


Pounds  of 

§| 

*53 

■  d 

o  „" 

'S3 

1    o 

a 

'53 

i   c3 

O   £ 

Pi. 

*53 

i  6 

o  »r 

Fodder 

1 

-82 

T3 

2 

3| 

.5  d 

1 

2 

•el 
8t 

Mixed 

Timothy 

Red  Top 

Kentucky  Blue 
Grass  Hay, 

Hays 

Hay, 

Hay, 

Hay, 

1:10.0 

1:16.5 

1:10.3 

1:10.6 

2} 

2.1 

0.11 

1.1 

2.2 

0.07 

1.2 

2.310.12 

1.2 

1.9 

0.09 

1.0 

5 

4.2 

0.22 

2.2 

4.3 

0.14 

2.3 

4.60.24 

2.4 

3.7 

0.19 

2.0 

71 

6.4 

0.33 

3.3 

6.5 

0.21 

3.5 

6.80.36 

3.6 

5.6 

0.28 

3.0 

10 

8.5 

0.44 

4.4 

8.7 

0.28 

4.6 

9.1  0.48 

4.9 

7.4 

0.37 

3.9 

12* 

10.6 

0.55 

5.5 

10.9 

0.35 

5.8  11.40.60 

6.2 

9.2 

0.46 

4.9 

15 

12.7 

0.66 

6.6 

13.0 

0.42 

6.9  13.9l0.72 

7.4 

11.1 

0.56 

5.9 

17} 

14.80.77 

7.7 

15.2 

0.49 

8.1 

16.00.84 

8.6 

13.0 

0.65 

6.9 

20 

16.9  0.88 

8.8 

17.4 

0.56 

9.2 

18.20.96 

9.8 

14.8 

0.74 

7.9 

25 

21.2,1.10 

11.0 

21.7 

0.70 

11.6 

22.8|l.20 

12.3 

18.5i0.93 

9.9 

Hays  and 

Rowen  Hay 

Rowen  Hay 

Alfalfa  Hay, 

Corn  Fodder, 

Dry  Fodder 

{mixed),  1:5.6 

(fine),  1:4.7 

1:3.8 

1:14.3 

2| 

2.1 

0.20 

1.1 

2.210.24 

1.1 

2.3 

0.28 

1.1 

1.410.06 
2.9|0.13 

0.9 

5 

4.2 

0.40 

2.3 

4.30.49 

2.3 

4.6 

0.55 

2.1 

1.8 

71 

6.3 

0.60 

3.4 

6.50.73 

3.4 

6.9 

0.83 

3.2 

4.30.19 

2.7 

10 

8.3 

0.80 

4.5 

8.7 

0.97 

4.6 

9.2 

1.10 

4.2 

5.8 

0.25 

3.6 

12* 

10.4 

1.00 

5.6 

10.9 

1.21 

5.7 

11.5 

1.38 

5.3 

7.2 

0.32 

4.5 

•      15 

12.5 

1.20 

6.7 

13.0 

1.46 

6.8 

13.7 

1.65 

6.4 

8.7 

0.38 

5.4 

17d 

14.6 

1.40 

7.8 

15.2 

1.70 

8.0 

16.0 

1.93 

7.4 

10.1 

0.44 

6.2 

20 

16.7 

1.60 

8.9 

17.4 

1.94 

9.1 

18.3 

2.20 

8.5 

11.6 

0.50 

7.1 

25 

20.9 

2.00  11.2 

21.7 

2.43  11.4 

22.9 

2.75 

10.6 

14.50.63 

8.9 

Dry  Fodders 

Corn  Stover, 

Oat  Hay, 

Oat  and  Pea 

Hungarian, 

and  Hays 

1:23.6 

1:9-9 

Hay,  1:4.9 

1:10.0 

2h 

1.5 

0.04 

0.8 

2.3 

0.10 

1.0 

2.2 

0.28 

1.2 

2.1  0.12 

1.2 

5 

3.0 

0.07 

1.7 

4.6 

0.21 

2.0 

4.4 

0.56 

2.3 

4.20.25 

2.4 

71 

4.5 

0.11 

2.5 

6.8 

0.31 

3.0 

6.6 

0.84 

3.5 

6.30.37 

3.6 

10 

6.0 

0.14 

3.3 

9.1 

0.41 

4.0 

8.9 

1.12 

4.6 

8.40.49 

4.9 

12* 

7.5 

0.18 

4.1 

11.4 

0.51 

5.1 

11.1 

1.40 

5.8 

10.40.62 

6.2 

15 

9.0 

0.21 

5.0 

13.7 

0.62 

6.1 

13.3 

1.68 

6.9 

12.50.74 

7.4 

m 

10.5 

0.25 

5.8 

16.0 

0.72 

7.1 

15.5 

1.96 

8.1 

14.60.86 

8.6 

20 

12.0 

0.28 

6.6 

18.2 

0.82 

8.1 

17.7 

2.24 

9.2 

16.710.98 

9.8 

25 

15.0 

0.35 

8.3 

22.8 

1.03 

10.2 

22.1 

2.80 

11.6 

20.9ll.23 

12.3 

Hays  and 

Red  Clover 

Alsike  Clover 

Clover  Rowen 

Barley  Straw, 

Straw 

Hay,  1:5.9 

Hay,   1:5.5 

Hay,  1:4.9 

1:61.0 

21 

2.1 

0.18 

1.0 

2.3 

0.21 

1.2 

2.30.21 

1.0 

2.1 

0.02 

1.1 

5 

4.2 

0.36 

2.1 

4.5 

0.42 

2.3 

4.6 

0.43 

2.1 

4.3 

0.04 

2.1 

1\ 

6.4 

0.53 

3.2 

6.8 

0.63 

3.5 

6.9 

0.64 

3.2 

6.4 

0.05 

3.2 

10 

8.5 

0.71 

4.2 

9.0 

0.84 

4.6 

9.2 

0.85 

4.2 

8.6 

0.07 

4.3 

12£ 

10.6 

0.89 

5.2 

11.3 

1.05 

5.8 

11.5 

1.07 

5.2 

10.7 

0.09 

5.3 

15 

12.7 

1.07 

6.3 

13.5 

1.26 

6.9 

13.8 

1.28 

6.3 

12.9 

0.11 

6.4 

m 

14.8 

1.24 

7.3 

15.8 

1.47 

8.1 

16.0 

1.49 

7.3 

15.0 

0.12 

7.5 

20 

16.9 

1.42 

8.3 

18.1 

1.68 

9.2 

18.3 

1.70 

8.3 

17.2 

0.14 

8.5 

25 

21.2 

1.78 

10.5 

22.6 

2.10 

11.6 

22.9 

2.13 

10.5 

21.5 

0.18 

10.7 

APPENDIX 


257 


Table  VII. — Continued 


Pounds  of 
Fodder 


Straws 

2J 

5 

7§ 

10 

12* 

15 

17* 

20 

25 


Graios 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
7* 
10 


Grains  and 
By-products 


2 
3 
4 
5 
7J 
10 


By-pro.  I  twt-, 
tie, 


2 
3 

4 
5 
7* 
10 


f  If 


Oat  Straw, 
1:38.3 


2.3 

0.03 

4.6 

0.06 

6.8 

0.09 

9.1 

0.12 

11.40.15 

13.90.18 

16.00.21 

18  20.24 

22.7 

0.30 

1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 


"3d 


ol    H 


TTAea*  S*rau\ 
1:93.0 


2.30.01 
4.50.02 
6.80.03 
9.00.04 
11.30.05 
6.9  13.5  0.06 

8.1  15.8j0.07 

9.2  18.1  0.08 
11.522.60.10 


Corn  Meal, 
1:11.3 


0.2 

0.02j 

0.4 

0.03 

0.9 

0.06 

1.7 

0.13 

2.6 

0.19 

3.4 

O.2.") 

4.3 

0.32 

6.4 

0.48 

8.5 

0.63 

0.2 
0.4 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.9 
3.6 
5.4 
7.1 


Provender  (as 

sold  in  New 

England), 

1:9.4 


0.210.02 
0.410.03 
0.90.07 

l    v  ii    it 

2.7  0.20 
i    10.34 


0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.5 
3.2 
4.8 
6.4 


I  ninr  Corn 
and  Oat  Feed, 

1:10.1 


0.2 
0.3 
0.6 


0.2 

0.02 

0.5 

0.03 

0.9 

0.06 

i   B 

0.13 

2.7 

0.10 

:< .  6 

0.26 

0.32 

6.8 

0.47 

9.0 

0.63 

c^ 


U 


Rye  Straw, 
1:69.0 


0.9  2.3 
1.9  4.( 
2.8  7.0 
3.7!  9.3 
4.6  11.6 
5  6,13.9  0.09 
6.516.30  11 
7.4  18.6*0.12 


0.02 
0.03 
0.05 
0.06 
0.08 


1.0 
2.1 
3.1 
4.1 
5.2 
6.2 
7.2 
8.3 


9.3  23.2.0.15  10.4 


Corn-and-Cob 
Meal,  1:13.9 

0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.3 
2.0 
2  7 
3.4 
5.1 
6.7 


Oat  Hulls, 
1:18.2 


0.2 

0.01 

0.4 

0.02 

0.9 

0.05 

1.7 

0.10 

2.6 

0.14 

3.4 

0.19 

4.3 

0.24 

6.4 

0.36 

8.5 

0.48 

0.2'0.01 
0.50.02 
0.90.03 
1.9  0.05 
2.80.08 
3.70.10 
4.60.13 
7.00.20 
9.30.26 


0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.9 


H,  O.  Horse, 
1:6.4 


0.2 

0.02 

0.8 

().().-, 

0.9 

ii  o<» 

1.8 

o.l.s 

2.7 

0  8fl 

8.6 

i  :, 

i,    i., 

6.8 

0.60 

9.0 

0.02 

0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 
1.8 
2.4 
2.9 
4.4 
6.9 


Oats, 
1:6.2 


0.2 

0.02 

0.4 

0.05 

0.9 

0.09 

1.8 

0.18 

2.7 

0.28, 

3.6 

0.37 

4.5 

0.46 

6.7 

0.69 

8.9 

0.92! 

2.8 
4.3 
5.7 


Quaker  Dairy 
Feed, 
1:4.6 


0.210. 
0.50. 
0.90. 
1.80. 
2.8!0. 
3.7,0. 
4.60. 
6.9!0. 
9.2  1. 


Barley, 
1:8.0 

0.210.02 
0.40.04 
0.90.09 
1  B  0  17 
2.7i0.26 
3.6:0.35 
4.50.44 
6.70.65 

8.910.87 


0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
:< .  8 
5.0 


0.2 
0.3 

?:!' 

2.1 
2.8 

5.2. 


31 


Provender 
(i   J).   1:8.4 


0.20.02 
0.4  0.04 
0.9  0.08 
1.7  0.15 
2.60.23 
3.50.31 

4.4  0.39 

6.5  0.58 
8.7  0.77 


0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 

1  9 

2  6 
3.2 
4  9 
6.5 


//.  O.  Dairy 
Feed, 
1:3.3 


0.20.04 
0.50.07 
0.90.15 
1.8  0.29 
2.70.44 
3.60.59 
4.60.74 
6.8  l.io 
'.i.l    1.  17 


0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 

3  7 
4.9 


Barley 

Screenings, 

1:7.7 


0 

20 

112 

0 

4  0.04 

0 

90 

(Ml 

1 

s.» 

17 

2 

26 

•i 

50 

31 

1 

l  11 

48 

6 

nil 

r,:, 

8.80 

88 

(»    2 

11  3 
0.7 
1.3 

2  0 

2   7 

3 .  :< 

."..(I 


258    AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


Table  VII. — Continued 


>> 

1    ■  » 

>> 

1    o 

>> 

■  6 

>> 

•     V 

Pounds  of 
Fodder 

•2     £» 

Ph    |g| 

.2    £» 

_g       a    - 

8    -S5 

Ph      $S 

a 

o 
Ah 

0 

'3 
o 
Ph 

If 

By-products 

Wheat  Bran, 

Wheat  Mid- 

Wheat Screen- 

Mixed (Wheat 

1:3.8 

dlings,  1:4.6 

ings,  1:5.2 

Feed),  1:3.9 

1 

0.2 

0.03 

0.1 

0.2 

0.031  0.1 

0.210.02 

0.1 

0.20.03 

0.1 

0.4 

0.06 

0.2 

0.4 

0.06    0.3 

0.410.05 

0.2 

0.40.07 

0.3 

1 

0.9 

0.12 

0.5 

0.9 

0.13    0.6 

0.9,0.10 

0.5 

0.90.13 

0.5 

2 

1.8 

0.24 

1.0 

1.8 

0.25    1.2 

1.8 

0.20 

1.0 

1.80.27 

1.0 

3 

2.6 

0.36 

1.4 

2.6 

0.38    1.7 

2.7 

0.29 

1.5 

2.7,0.40 

1.5 

4 

3.5 

0.48 

1.8 

3.5 

0.50    2.3 

3.5 

0.39 

2.0 

3.60.53 

2.1 

5 

4.4 

0.60 

2.3 

4.4 

0.63    2.9 

4.4 

0.49 

2.5 

4.50.67 

2.6 

71 

6.6 

0.90 

3.4 

6.6 

0.94    4.4 

6.6 

0.74 

3.8 

6.7  1.00 

3.8 

10 

8.8 

1.20 

4.6 

8.8 

1.25    5.8 

8.8 

0.98 

5.1 

8.9,1.33 

5.2 

By-products, 

Red-dog 

Rye, 

Rye  Bran, 

Cotton-seed 

etc. 

Flour,  1:3.3 

1:7.8 

1:5.1 

Meal,   1:1.0 

J 

0.2 

0.04 

0.1 

0.2 

0.02    0.2 

0.2 

0.03 

0.2 

0.20.10 

0.1 

0.5 

0.09 

0.3 

0.4 

0.04    0.3 

0.4 

0.06 

0.3 

0.5^0.20 

0.2 

1 

0.9 

0.18 

0.6 

0.9 

0.09    0.7 

0.9 

0.12 

0.6 

0.9i0.40 

0.4 

2 

1.8 

0.36 

1.2 

1.8 

0.18    1.4 

1.8 

0.25 

1.3 

1.8 

0.80 

0.8 

3 

2.7 

0.53 

1.7 

2.7 

0.27    2.1 

2.7 

0.37 

1.9 

2.8 

1.20 

1.2 

4 

3.6 

0.71 

2.3 

3.5 

0.36    2.8 

3.5 

0.49 

2.5 

3.7 

1.60 

1.6 

5 

4.6 

0.89 

2.9 

4.4 

0.46    3  51  4.4 

0.62 

3.1 

4.6 

2.00 

2.0 

7§ 

6.8 

1.34 

4.4 

6.6 

0.67    5.2 

6.6 

0.92 

4.7 

6.9 

3.00 

3.0 

10 

9.1 

1.78 

5.8 

8.8 

0.89    6.9 

8.8 

1.23 

6.3 

9.2 

4.00 

4.0 

By-products 

Cotton-seed 

Cc 

tton-seed 

Linseed  Meal 

Linseed  Meal 

Feed,    1:5.6 

Hu 

Us,    

(O.  P.),  1:1.5 

(N.P.),  1:1.3 

I 

0.2 

0.02 

0.1 

0.2 

0.1 

0.2 

0.08 

0.1 

0.20.08 

0.1 

0.4 

0.04 

0.2 

0.4 

0.2    0.5 

0.15 

0.2 

0.40.16 

0.2 

1 

0.9 

0.08 

0.4 

0.9 

....     0.4 

0.9 

0.31 

0.5 

0.90.32 

0.4 

2 

1.8 

0.16 

0.9 

1.8 

....     0.7 

1.8 

0.62 

1.0 

1.80.65 

0.8 

3 

2.7 

0.24 

1.3 

2.7 

1.1 

2.7 

0.92 
1.23 

1.4 

2.70.97 

1.3 

4 

3.5 

0.32 

1.8 

3.6 

....     1.5 

3.6 

1.8 

3.6  1.30 

1.7 

5 

4.4 

0.40 

2.2 

4.5 

1.8 

4.9 

1.54 

2.3 

4.5  1.62 

2.1 

71 

6.6 

0.59 

3.3 

6.7 

....     2.7 

6.8 

2.31 

3.4 

6.73.43 

3.2 

10 

8.8 

0.79 

4.4 

8.9 

....     3.7 

9.0 

3.08 

4.6 

8.9  3.24 

4.2 

Flax  Meal, 
1:1.4 

Glu 

ten  Meal 

Gluten  Meal 

Gluten  Meal 

By-products 

(C 

hicago) , 
1:1.5 

(Cream), 
1:1.7 

(King), 
1:1.9 

I 

0.2 

0.08 

0.1 

0.2 

0.08    0.1 

0.2 

0.07 

0.1 

0.2 

0.07 

0.1 

0.4 

0.16 

0.2 

0.4 

0.16    0.2 

0.4 

0.15 

0.2 

0.5 

0.15 

0.3 

1 

0.9 

0.32 

0.4 

0.9 

0.32    0.5 

0.9 

0.30 

0.5 

0.9 

0.30 

0.6 

2 

1.8 

0.64 

0.9 

1.8 

0.64    0.9 

1.8 

0.59 

1.0 

1.9 

0.59 

1.1 

3 

2.7 

0.96 

1.3 

2.6 

0.96    1.4 

2.7 

0.89 

1.5 

2.8 

0.89 

1.7 

4 

3.6 

1.28 

1.7 

3.5 

1.28    1.9    3.6 

1.19 

2.1 

3.7 

1.19 

2.3 

5 

4.5 

1.60 

2.2 

4.4 

1.60    2.3i  4.5 

1.49 

2.6 

4.6 

1.49 

2.8 

7i 

6.7 

2.40 

3.3 

6.6 

2.40    3.51  6.7 

2.23 

3.9 

6.9 

2.23 

4.3 

10 

8.9 

3.21 

4.3 

8.8 

3.21    4.7 

9.0 

2.97 

5.1 

9.3 

2.97 

5.7 

APPENDIX 


259 


Table  VII. — Continued 


IS"* 

i  c 

—  *^ 
I5 

■  c 

>. 

i   -' 

>> 

■  6 

Pounds  of 
Fodder 

c 
'5 

2 

6% 

s 

2 
Pn 

H 

'3 

2 

■el 

"I 

a 
'3 

o 

a* 

By-products 

Gluten  Feed 

(Buffalo  or 

Marshalltown) 

1:2.4 

Gluten  Feed 

(Diamond  or 

Rockford), 

1:3.0 

Hominy 
Chop, 
1:9.2 

StarcA  Feed 
1:4.9 

i 

0.2 

0.06 

0.1 

0.2 

0.05 

0.2 

0.210.02 

0.2 

0.1 

0.01 

I  o.i 

0.4 

0.12 

0.3 

0.5 

0.10 

0.3 

0.50.04 

0.4 

Q.2 

0.03 

0.2 

1 

0.9 

0.23 

0.6 

0.9 

0.20 

0.6 

0.90.09 

0.8 

0.3 

0.05 

0.3 

2 

1.8 

0.47 

1.1 

1.8 

0.41 

1.2 

1.80.17 

1.6 

0.7 

0.11 

0.5 

3 

2.7 

0.70 

1.7 

2.7 

0.61 

1.9 

2.80.26 

2.4 

1.0 

0.16 

0.8 

4 

3.6 

0.93 

2.3 

3.6 

0.81 

2 . 5 

3.70.35 

3.2 

1.4 

0.22 

1.1 

5 

4  5 

1.17 

L'.S 

4.6 

1.02 

3.1 

4.6  0.44 

4.0 

1.7 

0.27 

1.3 

7* 

6.8 

1.75 

4.3 

6.8 

1.52 

4.7 

6.90.65 

6.0 

2.6 

0.41 

1.7 

10 

9.0 

2.33 

5.7 

9.1 

2.03 

6.2 

9.2|0.87 

8.0 

3.510.54 

2.6 

By-products 

Dried  Brewers' 
Grains,   1:3.0 

Atlas  Gluten 
Meal,   1:2.6 

Malt  Sprouts, 
1:2.2 

Pea  Meal, 
1:3.2 

i 

0.2 

0.04 

0.1 

0.2 

0.06 

0.2 

0.2 

0.05 

0.1 

0.2 

0.04 

0.1 

0.5 

0.08 

0.3 

0.5 

0.12 

0.3 

0.4 

0.09 

0.2 

0.4 

0.08 

0.3 

i 

0.9 

0.16 

0.5 

0.9 

0.25 

0.6 

0.9 

0.19 

0.4 

0.9 

0.17 

0.5 

2 

1.8 

0.31 

0.9 

1.8 

0.49 

1.3 

1.8 

0.37 

0.8 

1.8 

0.33 

1.1 

3 

2.8 

0.47 

1.4 

2.8 

0.74 

1.9 

2.7 

0.56 

1.2 

2.7 

0.50 

1.6 

4 

3.7 

0.63 

1.9 

3.7 

0.98 

2.6 

3.6 

0.74 

1.6 

3.6 

0.67 

2.1 

5 

4.6 

0.79 

2.4 

4.6 

1.23 

3.2 

4.50.93 

2.0 

4.5 

0.84 

2.7 

71 

6.9 

1.18 

3.5 

6.9 

1.85 

4.9 

6.7  1.40 

3.0 

6.7 

1.26 

4  0 

10 

9.2 

1.57 

4.7 

9.2 

2.46 

6.5 

9. Oil. 86 

4.0 

9.0 

1.68 

5  3 

REFERENCES 

(Farmers'  Bulletins  may  be  obtained  free  by  application  to 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.) 


Chapter  IV 

The  World's  Work,  August,  1906,  p.  7885,  "Desert  Farming 

Without  Irrigation." 
The  World  To-day,  August,  1906,  p.  862,  "Farming  Without 

Water." 


260   AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  AGRICULTURE 


Chapter  V 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  No.  192,  Barnyard  Manures;  No.  245, 
Renovation  of  Worn-out  Soils. 

Chapter  VIII 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  No.  28,  Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them;  No. 
27,  Canada  Thistle,  Circular  27,  Division  of  Botany;  No. 
132,  The  Insect  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat;  No.  38,  Spray- 
ing Fruit;  No.  6,  Bordeaux  Mixtures,  Division  of  Vegetable 
Pathology;  No.  247,  The  Control  of  the  Codling  Moth  and 
Apple  Scab;  No.  19,  Important  Insecticides. 

Apply  to  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Madison,  Wis., 
for  the  following  Farmers'  Bulletins:  No.  Ill,  The  Pre- 
vention of  the  Oat  Smut;  No.  135,  The  Spraying  of  Potatoes. 

Chapter  X 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  No.  157,  The  Propagation  of  Plants;  No. 
229,  The  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn. 

Chapter  XII 

Get  seedmen's  catalogues  and  read  and  study  the  directions. 
Farmers'  Bulletins:  No.  61,  Asparagus  Culture;  No.  154,  The 
Home  Fruit  Garden;  No.   94,   The  Vegetable  Garden;  No. 

198,  Strawberries;  No.  220,  Tomatoes;  No.  254,  Cucumbers. 

Chapter  XIII 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  No.  25,  Peanuts;  No.  35,  Potato  Culture; 
No.  47,  Insects  Affecting  Cotton;  No.  52,  The  Sugar  Beet; 
No.  81,  Corn  Culture  in  the  South;  No.  91,  Potato  Diseases; 
No.  110,  Rice  Culture  in  the  United  States;  No.  129,  Sweet 
Potatoes;  No.  132,  Insect  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat;  No. 

199,  Corn  Growing. 


APPENDIX  261 


Chapter  XIV 


Farmers1  Bulletins:  No.  113,  The  Apple  and  Hoiv  to  Grow  It; 
No.  33,  Peach  Growing  for  Market;  No.  62,  Marketing  Farm 
Produce;  No.  80,  The  Peach-Twig  Borer;  No.  175,  Home 
Manufacture  and  Use  of  Unfermented  Grape  Juice;  No.  203, 
Canned  Fruits,  Preserves,  and  Jellies. 

Chapter  XV 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  No.  143,  Conformation  of  Beef  and  Dairy 
Cattle;  No.  106,  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle. 

Chapter  XVIII 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  No.  96,  Raising  Sheep  for  Mutton;  No.  104, 
Food  Requirements  of  Pigs,  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Madison,  Wis.  Study  them  and  try  to  make  some 
experiment  suggested  by  these  Bulletins  on  feeding  sheep 
and  pigs. 

Chapter  XIX 

Farmers'  Bulletins:  No.  51,  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens; 
No.  64,  Ducks  and  Geese;  No.  182,  Poultry  as  Food;  No. 
200,  Turkeys:  Standard  Varieties  and  Management;  No. 
287,  Poultry  Management;  also  Watson's  Farm  Poultry, 
Macmillan  Co.;  Comstock's  How  to  Keep  Bees,  Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co. 

Chapter  XX 

Farmers'  Bulletins :  No.  9(>,  liaising  Sheep  for  Mutton;  NO.  100, 
//.-,/  /,',//  ing  in  tin  Smith;  \<>.  1  12,  Principles  of  Nutrition 
anil  Sutritin  Value  of  Fond;  \o.  LSI,  Dairying  in  the 
South;  Mo,  17(),  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding, 


is 


INDEX 


Aberdeen- Angus  cattle,  166. 

Absorption  of  water  by  soil,  ex- 
periment, 24. 

Agriculture,  defined,  1. 

Air,  experiment  to  show  neces- 
sity for  plant  growth,  8;  in- 
creased in  soil  by  under- 
drainage,  26;  in  soil,  23; 
made  up  of  oxygen  and  ni- 
trogen, 63. 

Alfalfa,  54,  134;  several  crops, 
69. 

Amendments,  defined,  49. 

Animals,  69-72;  care  of,  223. 

Annato,  for  coloring  butter,  178. 

Apples,  150;  Baldwin,  to  pro- 
duce, 124. 

Ashes,  49;  wood,  for  :ipple  or- 
chard, 151. 

Asparagus,  in  garden,  131. 

Babcock  milk  test,  17 1. 

Bacteria,  13;  eauee  <>f  plant  dis- 
ease, 85;  in  roots  of  leg- 
unit 

Balanced  ration  example,  219. 

Barnyard  manure.  Bee  u  un  u. 

Baswood,  for  planting,  235. 

Burpee,   113;  in  garden, 
130. 


Bees,  209. 

Beets,  in  garden,  129;  sugar  in, 
115. 

Berkshire  swine,  196. 

Biennials,  69,  72. 

Birds  and  their  food,  90;  at- 
tracting, 96;  feeding,  98; 
houses,  96;  number  of,  90; 
useful,  74. 

Blight,  Bordeaux  mixture  for, 
243;  peas,  153. 

Bluebird,  92. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  84,  86,  243. 

Brahma  chickens,  206. 

Bronco,  188. 

Budding,  125. 

Buds,  3;  growth  from,  117 

Bulbs,  defined,  238. 

Burbank,  Luther,  108. 
Butter,  177. 

Cabbage  irorm,  81 . 
Calcium  carbonate,  51. 
Calories,  defined,  218. 
Cambium  layer,  123. 

Canada  thistle,  a  perennial,  72. 
( 'anker  worm,  81. 
( 'apillarity,  21. 
Capillary  attraction,  25. 

t ferbon,  defined,  64. 


264 


INDEX 


Carbonic  acid,  in  soil  water,  6. 
Carbon  dioxide,  composition  of, 

64;  absorbed  by  leaves,  7; 

used  to  make  starch,  64. 
Carbohydrates,  in  various  foods, 

250-254;  use  in  feed,  216. 
Care  of  animals,  223. 
Carrots,  143. 
Casein,  in  cheese,  179;  in  milk, 

170. 
Casterilius,  picture  of,  161. 
Caterpillar,  stung  by  ichneumon 

fly,  100. 
Cats,  enemies  of  birds,  99. 
Cattle,  chapter  on,  159;   advan- 
tages  in  raising,  166;    beef 

breeds,   164;  importance  of 

good,  167. 
Celery,  in  garden,  131. 
Chalcis  fly,  100. 
Chalk,  an  amendment,  50. 
Cheese,  178. 
Cherries,  154. 
Cheshire  swine,  196. 
Chester  white  swine,  195. 
Cheviot  sheep,  194. 
Chicken,    breeds   of,  204;   coop, 

208. 
Chinch  bug,  described,  83. 
Churn,  178. 
Clay,  12. 
Clover,  54;  crimson,   135;  roots 

showing  nodules,  55. 
Clovers,  135. 
Clydesdale  horses,  187. 
Cochin  chickens,  Bui,  206. 
Codling  moth,  80. 
Colostrum,  171,  172. 
Composition  of  foods,  table,  68. 
Compounds,  defined,  40. 


Corn,  135;  composition  of,  216; 

effect  on  soil,  59;  sweet,  in 

garden,  130. 
Cotswold  sheep,  194. 
Cotton,  143. 
Cow,  dairy,   159;  usefulness  of, 

159. 
Cream,  176. 

Cucumbers,  in  garden,  130. 
Cuttings,  117,  120. 

Dairy  farm,  rotation  for,  61. 

Dan  Patch,  184. 

Danzenbaker  hive,  211. 

Delaine  sheep,  192. 

Diseases.    See  plant  diseases. 

Dorset  Horn  sheep,  193. 

Dragonflies,  101. 

Drainage,  methods  of,  27. 

Dry  farming,  37. 

Dry   matter,    in   various    foods, 

250. 
Ducks;  geese,  and  turkeys,  207. 
Duroc  Jersey  swine.  196. 

Elements,  40. 

Elm,  American  white  for  plant- 
ing, 235. 

English  Shire  horse,  186. 

Ensilage,  220. 

Essex  swine,  197. 

Evaporation,  20;  carries  away 
heat,  23. 

Factory,  of  nature,  63. 
Farmer,  work  of,   1;  knowledge 

required,  1,  2. 
Farmer's  friends,  chapter  on,  90. 
Fat,  in  various  foods,  250,  254; 
.  use  in  feed,  216. 


INPKX 


265 


Feeding   stuffs,    kinds    of,    220; 
table  of,  250. 
Is,  classes  of,  216. 

Weeds  and  fodders,  constituents 
of,  table,  254. 

Feldspar,  12;  source  of  potas- 
sium, 41. 

Fermentation,  in  tobacco,  149. 

Fertility  removed  by  crops   246. 

Fertilizers,  commercial,  with 
root  crops,  143;  for  hay, 
133;  licensed,  48;  commer- 
cial, 48. 

Finches,  95. 

Fire  blight,  85. 

Flowers,  103;  part  of,  103;  use 
of,  4. 

Flower  garden,  237. 

Food,  digestible  ingredients, 
table,  250,  254;  for  birds,  97. 

Food,  animal,  importance  of,  214. 

Food  elements,  how  the  plant 
combines,  66. 

Forest,  how  it  may  l>e  perpetu- 
ated, 233;  some  ad  van  t 
of,  230. 

Forestry,  the  purpose  of,  229; 
what  other  nations  are  do- 
ing, 231;  what  our  govern- 
ment is  doing,  232. 

Formaldehyde  solution  for 
244. 

Frogs,  99. 

Fruit,  marketing,  154. 

Fuel  value,  252;  in  various  food-, 
250. 

Fungicides,  88. 

Garden,  ears  of,   128;  desirable 

plants  for,  128;  farm  impor- 


tance of,  127;  farm,  chapter 
on,  128;  flower,  237;  posi- 
tion and  soil  for,  127. 

Germination,  conditions  affect- 
ing, 116. 

Glaciers,  action  of ,  in  soil  forma- 
tion, 16. 

Gluten,  to  prepare,  66. 

Good  roads,  forestry,  home  and 
school  grounds,  chapter  on, 
226. 

Good  roads,  farmer's  interest  in, 
226;  how  to  make  and  keep, 
226. 

Grafting,  117,  121;  necessity  for, 
124. 

Grafting  wax,  formula,  V2'\. 

Granite,  12,  13. 

<  (rapes,  154. 

Growth,  conditions  of,  7. 

Guano,  source  of  phosphate,  41. 

Guernsey  cattle,  161. 

Gypsum,  an  amendment,  50. 

Hackney  horses,  1S7. 
HamUetonian  horses,  Is  I. 
Hampshire  sheep,  193. 
Hampshire  swine,  197. 
Harrows,  36. 

Hay  and  grass  crop,  133. 
Hay,  curing,  134;  for  horses,  133. 
I ir.ii .  production  by  plant   68. 

Herd,  how  to  improve    167. 

Hereford  cattle,  L66J  cow,  pic- 
ture of,  1 '»•") 

Hodge,  Prof.,  report  on  honey, 
211. 

Bobtein  cattle,  180. 

! tame  and  -  ihool  grounds,  23  I. 

Boudan  chickens,  *—'  • » i . 


266 


INDEX 


Horse,  chapter  on,  1S1;  anteced- 
ents and  types,  181;  desir- 
able characteristics,  181 ; 
external  parts  of,  182;  for 
speed,  183;  coach,  187; 
draft,  185;  intelligence  of, 
189;  rations  fed  to,  table, 
253;  use  and  care  of,  188. 

Humus,  denned,  11;  holds 
water.  26. 

Hybrids,  107. 

Hydrogen,  denned,  64. 

Ichneumon  fly,  99. 
India,  forestry  in,  232. 
Indian  corn.    See  corn. 
Inoculation,  to  supply  bacteria, 

56. 
Insects,   classified,   79;  common 

cutting,  80;  description,  77; 

life  history,   78;   scale  San 

Jose,  83;  control,  84;  useful, 

99. 
Iron  sulphate,  for  killing  weeds, 

97. 

Jersey  cattle,  162. 

Johanna,     Colantha     Fourth's, 

picture  and  record,  160. 
Justin  Morgan,  185. 

Kerosene  emulsion  formula,  245. 
Killdeer,  95. 

Lactic  acid,  in  milk,  172. 
Langshan  chickens,  206. 
Langstroth  hive,  211. 
Larvae,  in  soil,  57. 
Layering,  117,  121. 


Leaves,  use  of,  3. 
Leghorn  chickens,  204. 
Legumes,    54;   as  deep  feeders, 

56;  as  forage,  57;  as  nitro- 
gen gatherers,  55. 
Leguminous  plants,  chapter  on, 

54. 
Leicester  sheep/  194. 
Lettuce,  in  garden,  129. 
Lichens,  16. 
Light,    essential    to    growth,   7, 

experiment    to    show    need 

of,  7. 
Lime,  an  amendment,  49;  as  an 

aid     to     nitrification,     50; 

phosphate  of,  41. 
Limestone,  12;  weathering,  13. 
Lincoln  sheep,  194. 
Loam,  defined,  11. 
Locust  tree,  a  legume,  54. 
London  purple,  84. 

Mambrino  Chief,  184. 

Manure,  barnyard,  46;  care  of, 

47;    value    of    from    horse, 

etc.,  47. 
Marl,  an  amendment,  50. 
Massachusetts,  rotation  in,  61. 
Meadow  lark,  95. 
Merino  sheep,  192. 
Messenger,  Imported,  183. 
Metamorphosis,  explained,  78. 
Mica,  12. 
Mildew,  87. 
Milk,  Babcock  test  outfit,  175; 

composition   of,    170;    food 

value   of,    172;    pails,    173; 

separator,     174;    skimmed, 

177;  tester,  174;  souring  of, 

172. 


INDEX 


267 


Milk  and  its  products,  chapter 

on,  170. 
Milk  of  different  breeds  of  cattle, 

171. 
Minor  Heir,  184. 
Moisture,  how  the  soil  may  hold 

more,  25;  regulation  of,  32. 
Morgan  horses,  185. 
Mosses,  16. 

Muck,  an  amendment,  50. 
Mulch,  surface,  defined,  32. 
Mushrooms,  2. 

Nest  building,  materials  for,  97. 
Nitrate,  defined,  41. 
Nitrification,  defined,  50. 
Nitrogen,  defined,  40;  effect  on 

plant,   46;  in  manure.  46; 

fixation   with   legumes,   55; 

removed     by     crops,     60; 

source  of,  43;  with  barley, 

138. 
Norfolk  system  of  rotation,  (50. 
Nuthatches,  95. 
Nutrients,    table    of,    for    day's 

feeding,  248. 
Nutritive    ratio,    defined,    217; 

how  found,  249. 


Oats,  a  farm  crop,  137;  smutty, 
illustration,  86;  to  prevent 

smut   in,  I'll. 
Ohio,  rotation  in.  ill. 
Oil,    made    in    plant.-,    <',:,;    where 

found,  65. 

Oriole,  Baltimon 
Osmosis,  43;  exjwriment,  44. 
( Ixford  iheep,  r.» 1. 
Oxygen,  63. 


Pandora,  Lady,  picture  of,  163. 

Paris  green,  84;  formula,  245. 

Peaches,  153. 

Peanut,  a  legume,  54. 

Pears,  152. 

Peas,  field,  141;  in  garden,  129. 

Pcrcheron  horses,  186. 

Perennials,  hardy,  239;  for  farm- 
er's flower  garden,  239. 

Phosphoric  acid,  in  ashes,  49; 
removed  by  crops,  table,  60; 
with  barley,  138. 

Phosphorus,  defined,  41;  effect 
on  plants,  46. 

Phylloxera,  grape,  83. 

Plankers,  36. 

Plant,  decayed,  help  make  soil, 
1 1 ;  how  it  grows,  4 ;  parts  of, 
2;  the  nature  of,  chapter  on, 
1. 

Plant  diseases,  common  and 
treatment,  85;  nature  of, 
85. 

Plant  enemies,  chapter  on ,  71. 

Plant  food,  chapter  on,  63;  dis- 
solved in  water,  6;  from  air, 
7 ;  how  it  gets  into  the  plant, 
43;  locked  up,  '.»;  must  be 
usable,  8;  source  of,  I J ; 
stored  in  seed,  5;  use  of  each 
kind,  45. 

Plant   lire,  S3. 

Plover,  95. 
Plow,  described,  35. 
Plowing,  successful,  35 
Plum,    Kelsoy,    106;    w  ,< 

IDS. 

Phancot,  ins. 

Plymouth  Rock  chickens,  206. 

Poland-China  swine,  195. 


268 


INDEX 


Polled  Durham  cattle,  166. 
Pollination,  106;  cross,  107. 
Ponies,  187. 
Pony,     Northern    Indian,     188; 

Shetland,  187. 
Porosity  of  soil,  21. 
Potash,  42 ;  amount  in  wheat,  45 

experiment   to   obtain,    42 

in  ashes,  49;  in  manure,  46 

muriate  of,  134;  removed  by 

crops,  table,  60. 
Potassium,  defined,  41. 
Potato   beetle,    82;     blight,    88; 

scab  in  soil,  57;  scab,  88. 
Potatoes,  141;  grown  from  cut- 
tings, 121;  scabby,  how  to 

treat,  245. 
Poultry  and   bees,   chapter  on, 

202. 
Poultry,  raising  and  care  of,  207; 

benefits  of,  202. 
Products  of  plant  growth,  64. 
Profit  and  loss  in  feeding,  222. 
Propagation,     of     plants,     108: 

other  than  by  seed,  119. 
Proteid,  described,  65;  made  by 

plants,  63. 
Protein,  described,  65;  in  various 

foods,  250,  254;  use  in  feed, 

216. 
Protoplasm,  44. 
Pruning,  154,  156. 
Pulse  family,  54. 

Quartz,  12. 

Radishes,  in  garden,  129. 
Rainfall,  amount  necessary  for 

crops,  37. 
Rambouillet  sheep,  192. 


Ration,  balanced,  217;  for  horse, 
example  of,  221;  actually 
fed  to  horses,  table,  253. 

References,  259. 

Rena  Ross,  picture  of,  164. 

Rice,  146. 

Robin,  91. 

Rocks,  decayed,  helps  make  soil, 
10. 

Rollers,  36. 

Roots,  2;  open  up  soil,  26. 

Root  crops,  142. 

Root  hairs,  3;  absorb  water,  6- 
take  nitric  acid,  41. 

Rotation  of  crops,  chapter  on, 
54;  defined,  57;  destroys 
weeds,  58;  enlarges  farm, 
58;  regulates  food  supply, 
59;  a  weapon  against  pests, 
57;  Norfolk  system,  60. 

Rust,  wheat,  85. 

Salt,  common,  an  amendment, 
50. 

Saltpeter,  source  of  potassium, 
41. 

Salts,  mineral,  6. 

Sandstone,  12. 

San  Jose  scale,  83. 

Scab,  in  potatoes,  141. 

School  and  home  grounds,  234. 

Scion,  121;  for  grafting,  150. 

Seeds,  103;  age  of  viable,  109; 
table,  110;  description,  5; 
maturity  of,  110;  produc- 
tion, 69;  quality  of,  109; 
selecting,  110;  space  and 
quantity  required,  247; 
testing,  115;  use  of,  4. 

Seed  bed,  preparation  of,  32. 


INDEX 


269 


Sheep,  breeds  of,  191. 

Sheep  and  swine,  chapter  on, 
191. 

Sheep  raising,  advantages  of, 
191. 

Shells,  contain  phosphate,  41. 

Shorthorn  cattle,  166. 

Shrophsire  sheep,  193. 

Shrubs,  hardy  flowering,  239. 

Silo,  220. 

Smut,  corn,  85;  oat,  86. 

Soil,  chapter  on,  10;  constituents 
in  average  crop,  246;  de- 
fined, 10;  enriching,  chapter 
on,  48;  formation  of,  13; 
good  farm,  18;  kinds  of,  11; 
porosity,  21;  uses  of,  to 
plants,  17. 

Soil  enriching,  chapter  on,  40. 

Southdown  sheep,  193. 

Sparrow,  95. 

Sporges  of  fungi,  etc.,  85. 

Spraying,  potatoes,  141. 

Spruce,  Colorado  blue,  for  plant- 
ing 235. 

Stable,  filthy,  illustration,  224. 

Starch,  changing  to  sugar,  0<i; 
changed  to  sugar,  07;  de- 
scribed, 64;  made  in  plant-. 
stored-up,  66,  67;  test 
for,  64. 

Stems,  3. 

St  r.iu ,  burning,  46. 
Strawberries  in  garden,  131. 

Subtil.  10. 

Sugar,  65;  amount  in  l>eel  .  115; 
changed  to  starch,  07;  made 

in  plants,  63. 

Sugar  cane,  l  \~>. 

ming  of  bees,  210. 


Swine,  advantage  of  raising,  194; 

breeds  of,   195;  where  and 

how  to  raise,  198. 
Switzerland,  forestry  in,  231. 

Tarn  worth  swine,  197. 

Tanager,  scarlet,  92. 

Thoroughbred  horses,  183. 

Thrushes,  92. 

Tillage,  for  two  reasons,  33;  im- 
plements of,  34;  importance 
of  good,  34;  object  of,  30; 
to  cover  manure,  33. 

Tiles  for  drainage,  27. 

Tilling,  a  risk  in,  33. 

Tilling  the  soil,  chapter  on,  30. 

Toads  and  frogs,  9!). 

Tobacco,  146;  effect  on  soil,  59. 

Tools,  care  of,  36. 

Topping,  tobacco,  147. 

Transplanting,  154. 

Trees  and  shrubs,  234. 

Tubercules  on  legumes,  55;  on 
roots,  43. 

Tull,  Jethro,  34. 

Turnips,  113;  in  rotation,  00. 

Underdraina^e,  benefits  of.  26. 
United  States,  rotation  in,  60. 

Victoria  swine,  197. 
Vines,  236. 

Water,  amount  used  by  different 
plants,  22;  effect  of  too  lit  i  le 
in  the  -oil,  22;  effect  of  too 
much,  22;  freezing  breaks 

rocks,  i:{;  importance  of,  to 
plant,  20;  movement  of.  in 
the  soil,  20;  in  soil,  7. 


270 


INDEX 


Water  in  the  soil,  chapter  on,  20. 

Water  on  surface  of  soil  parti- 
cles, 25. 

Weather,  effect  on  rocks,  14. 

Weathering,  13;  agent,  16. 

Weeds,  annual,  how  to  kill,  72; 
biennial,  how  to  kill,  75; 
classes  of.  61;  denned,  71; 
perennial,  how  to  kill,  75; 
to  kill,  33;  why  enemies,  71. 

Wheat,  extensive  root  system, 
58;  Fultz,  produced  by  se- 
lection, 113;  macaroni,  37; 
wheat  and  other  grains,  137. 


Whey,  179. 
Winter  wheat,  59. 
Wind,  effect  on  rocks,  15. 
Wolf-Lehmann,  standard  table, 

248. 
Woodpeckers,  93. 
Wood  tissue,  65. 
Wrens,  96. 
Wyandotte  chickens,  206. 


Yeksa  Sunbeam,  feed  of,  during 

test,  216;  picture  of,  162. 
Yorkshire  swine,  197. 


(2) 


OF 


^/l 


THE    END 


THE  APPLETON  ARITHMETICS 


TWO-BOOK  SERIES 
Primary  Book  -     -     Cloth,  35c 
Grammar-School  Book    "     55c 


THREE-BOOK  SERIES 
Primary  Book  =     -     Cloth,  35c 
Second  Book    -     -        "     40c 
Third  Book       -     -        "     40c 


The  fundamental  principles  taken  as  guides  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  series  are:  (i)  Interest  is  the  corner-stone  of  all 
successful  teaching;  (2)  The  child's  play  leads  to  self-reve- 
lation;   (3)  Manual  expression    is  necessary  to  clear  ideas; 

(4)  No  education  is  complete  that  ignores  the  industrial  side; 

(5)  No  subject  stands  alone  in  the  school  curriculum. 

The  plan  of  the  books  is  exceedingly  simple.  The  oral 
work  is  separated  from  the  written,  the  abstract  from  the  con- 
crete, and  the  whole  is  well  balanced  and  carefully  graded. 
The  natural  activity  of  the  child  is  utilized  by  the  abundant 
opportunities  for  experimental  work,  and  his  interest  is  held 
by  the  diversity  of  topics  from  which  the  problems  are  drawn. 
The  problems  cover  a  broad  field,  including  geography, 
nature  studies,  manual  training,  domestic  art,  and  the  forms 
of  modern  business  practice.  The  teacher  will  appreciate  the 
frequent  reviews,  by  topic  and  chapter.  Sufficient  algebra  is 
presented  to  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  high-school  course. 

THE  APPLETON  ARITHMETICS 

(1)  Present  the  essentials  of  arithmetic  systematically. 

(2)  Drill  on  the  essentials  of  arithmetic  thoroughly. 

(3)  Apply  the  essentials  broadly. 

(4)  Embody  the  whole  artistically. 

D      APPLETON     AND     COMPANY 

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AN  ELEMENTARY  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 
Builders  of  Our  Country 

By  Gertrude  Van  Duyn  Southworth,  Author  of  "The 
Story  of  the  Empire  State,"  "A  First  Book  in  American 
History,"  etc.  Two  volumes.  Fully  illustrated.  i2mo. 
Cloth,  ,60  cents  each.     Volumes  sold  separately. 

These  two  books,  telling  the  stories  of  more  than  fifty  of 
the  most  important  characters  in  United  States  History,  from 
the  year  1000  to  the  present  time,  form  a  splendid  equipment 
for  the  teaching  of  elementary  history  in  the  Fifth  and  Sixth 
Grades. 

Nothing  makes  History  so  real  to  the  pupil  of  ten  or 
twelve  as  biographical  studies  in  which  historical  events  are 
so  portrayed  by  striking  and  vivid  pictures  as  to  become  firmly 
fixed  in  the  memory.  The  pupil  thus  becomes  familiar  in 
the  most  interesting  way  with  the  chief  events  of  our  national 
life — a  knowledge  invaluable  further  on  in  the  more  formal 
study  of  History. 

The  author,  in  her  concise  and  charming  style,  has  suc- 
ceeded in  drawing  just  such  vivid  pictures  of  the  men  and 
times,  recounting  personal  incidents  of  interest,  while  adhering 
strictly  to  the  requirements  of  an  authentic  historical  record. 
A  special  point  is  the  continuity  of  the  story  throughout  the 
books,  despite  the  biographical  plan  of  presentation. 

Profuse  illustrations  serve  to  throw  light  upon  the  text 
and  give  an  accurate  idea  of  the  life  of  the  various  periods. 
Each  book  is  made  complete  by  review  questions  covering 
each  chapter,  a  chronology,  and  a  pronouncing  index. 

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NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE 

Practical  Nature  Study  and  Elementary- 
Agriculture 

A  Manual  for  the  Use  of  Teachers  and  Normal  Students. 
By  John  M.  Coulter,  Director  of  the  Department  of 
Botany,  University  of  Chicago;  John  G.  Coulter, 
Professor  of  Biology,  Illinois  State  Normal  University  ; 
Alice  Jean  Patterson,  Department  of  Biology,  in 
charge  of  Nature  Study,  Illinois  State  Normal  University. 
1 2 mo,  cloth,  $1.35  net. 

This  book  is  an  attempt,  on  very  practical  lines,  to  help  the 
teacher  of  nature  study  to  become  more  independent  in  his  work, 
and  to  make  his  work  more  definite.  The  volume  has  grown  out 
of  the  experience  of  the  authors.  The  material  has  largely  been 
used  in  regular  class  work,  and  found  efficient  under  conditions 
similar  to  those  of  the  average  school. 

Part  I  is  devoted  to  presenting  the  principles  of  nature  study, 
its  mission  and  spirit,  as  well  as  the  dangers  which  the  study  entails 
and  how  to  avoid  them.  It  is  practically  a  guide  to  the  teaching  of 
nature  study.  Part  II  contains  a  detailed  topical  outline  by  grades 
and  seasons  of  the  materials  used  in  nature  study  in  the  training 
school  at  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University.  Its  definite  outlines 
of  work  will  be  of  important  service  to  teachers  who  are  called  upon 
to  handle  the  subject  with  slight  previous  training.  Part  III  is 
principally  devoted  to  an  outline  course  for  elementary  agriculture 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  with  most  of  the  lessons  worked 
out  in  detail.  These  lessons  have  all  satisfactorily  met  the  test 
of  class-room  use.  Part  IV  comprises  certain  chapters  on  more 
general  topics — material  which  will  prove  serviceable  for  teachers 
whose  general  science  training  has  been  slight  or  is  lacking  entirely. 
The  aim  is  to  provide  a  scientific  point  of  view  of  the  materials  and 
principles  which  are  to  be  used  in  the  work. 

The  study  of  this  exceedingly  practical  book,  the  aim  of  which 
is  to  aid  in  making  nature  study  practical  under  present  teaching 
conditions,  should  produce  better  teachers  and  more  enlightened 
students. 

D.     APPLETON     AND     COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 


THE  KROHN  PHYSIOLOGIES. 


BY  WILLIAM  O.  KROHN,   M.D.,  Ph.D. 

A  First  Book  in  Physiology  and  Hy- 
giene.    Illustrated.     152  pages.     Cloth,  35  cents. 

A  series  of  bright,  simple  lessons  for  little  children,  with  the  emphasis  on 
hygiene.  It  explains  a  few  important  things  in  a  very  clear  and  attractive  way, 
bringing  in  pictures,  verses,  and  legends  to  drive  each  lesson  home.  Every- 
thing that  the  children  learn  is  put  to  test  in  useful  exercises,  each  as  good  as 
a  game,  many  of  them  calling  for  individual  observation  and  reasoning.  It  is 
just  the  book  to  rouse  a  child's  initiative  and  make  him  choose  for  himself  the 
road  to  health. 

I  believe  you  have  struck  the  key-note  for  teaching  hygiene  to  httle  people. 
— Ada  Van  Stone  Harris,  Supervisor  of  Kindergarten  and  Primary 
Schools,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

It  is  a  gem  from  title  to  finish. — Wm.  J.  Cox,  Superintendent  of  Public 
Schools,  Moline,  III. 

I  have  the  little  volume,  and  it  is  the  only  one  in  my  experience  where  the 
study  of  the  human  body  and  its  needs  is  not  made  repulsive  and  tiresome. 
The  book  is  so  cheery,  it  is  like  any  other  interesting  story. — Fannie  McGee, 
Public  Schools,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Graded  Lessons  in  Physiology  and  Hy- 
giene.    Illustrated.     294  pages.     Cloth,  60  cents. 

An  advanced  book,  thoroughly  scientific  and  thoroughly  practical.  Func- 
tion is  treated  more  fully  than  structure,  but  the  most  common  and  important 
matters  of  anatomy  and  physiology  are  explained  clearly  and  accurately.  The 
whole  book  pleads  for  health  — for  strong  will  power  and  good  habits— as  a 
first  requisite  to  good  citizenship.  This  broad,  wholesome  view  of  the  subject 
includes  chapters  on  public  sanitation  and  on  diseases  growing  out  of  the 
specialization  and  stress  of  modern  life.  The  book  illustrates  concretely  and 
forcibly  the  far-reaching  importance  of  the  whole  subject,  and  sets  exercises 
and  questions  for  discussion.     It  has  a  convenient  pronouncing  glossary. 

Both  teachers  and  pupils  are  more  than  satisfied  with  these  books.  In  fact, 
the  "Lessons  in  Hygiene''  has  become  to  them  a  matter  of  delight.  The 
text  has  stimulated  many  of  our  children  to  independent  observation. — W.  N. 
Hailmann,  Formerly  Superintendent  of  Instruction,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

A  most  practical  and  up-to-date  text-book.  It  combines  science  and  good 
sense  in  happy  degrees  —  W.  M.  Beardshear,  Late  President  State  College, 
Ames,  Iowa. 

It  ia  a  great  contrioution,  as  touching  the  every-day  life  of  the  child,  upon 
a  great  subject.— Charles  H.  Albert,  State  Normal  School,  blooms- 
burg,  Pa. 

I  regard  it  the  best  book  on  elementary  hygiene  that  I  have  ever  seen. — 
John  R.  Kirk,  President  State  Normal  School,  Kirksville,  Mo. 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


OF  THE 

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